Theravada Buddhism by Ashin Ottama

Theravada Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide

Theravada Buddhism
by Ashin Ottama (First Prize Winner in Competition)

 

Table of Contents

(Part One)

Chapter (1)

Theravada and Mahayana

A Brief Account of the Buddha's Life

Explanation of Eras

The Cause of the Sangha Schism

Theravada and the Mahāsāṅghika

Buddhist Sects

Theravada and the Vibhajjavāda sect

The Blood Division by the Brahmins

Buddhism in the Sunga Period

King Kanishka and Buddhism

The Sangha Council of Kanishka

Theravada, Mahayana, Hinayana

The Main Path of the Mahayana Sect

The Fading of Religion in India

 

Chapter (2)

The Spread of Theravada Religion

How Sri Lanka became Theravada

The Sangha Sects of Sri Lanka

Modern Day Sects

How Thailand became Theravada

The Founding of Thailand

How Cambodia became Theravada

King Satta Jayavarman and Buddhism

How Laos became Theravada

 

Chapter (3)

The Theravada Councils

Preamble to the Councils

The First Council

The Second Council

The Third Council3

The Fourth Council

The Fifth Council

The Sixth Council

 

Chapter (4)

The Theravada Piṭaka

What Theravada is

The Vinaya Piṭaka

The Sutta Piṭaka

The Abhidhamma Piṭaka

Checking the Buddhist Scriptures

 

Chapter (5)

The Theravada Dhamma Gems

Buddhism Among Religions

Becoming a Buddhist

Buddhist Sīla (Morality)

The Kalama Sutta as a Guide

The 10 Unwholesome Actions

Maṅgala for the People to Practice

Discourse on Prosperity

The Buddha's Perfection of Generosity

The Noble Eightfold Path, the Supreme Dhamma

The Nature of Nibbāna 

 

Chapter (6)

Theravada and Myanmar 

Buddha and Myanmar 

The arrival of the Sāsana by Tapussa and Bhallika 

The Second Arrival of the Sāsana 

Theravada and the Suvannabhumi View 

Theravada in the Pyu and Mon Eras

The Arrival of the Burmese

The Theravada Buddhist State

Buddhism Under the Burmese Kings

 

Chapter (7)

Theravada Sects

Pagan Period Sects

The Ramanna Sangha Sects

The Purification of the Sāsana

The Ari Gyi Sect

The Pwe Kyaung Sect

The Thudhamma and Shwegyin Sects

Modern Day Sects

A comparison of monastic populations

 

(Part Two)

Chapter (1)

Worships Mixed into Theravada

The Proliferation of Worship

The Burmese Worship of Nats

The Worship of the Indra Nat

The Worship of the Saraswati Nat

The Worship of the U Min Kyaw Nat

The Worship of the Graha Nats (Planetary Deities)

The 37 Nats and the 21 Devis

The Worship of Local Nats

The Worship of Bo Daw and Me Daw (Ancestors)

The Worship of Royal Effigies

The Worship of Ditthi Zawgyi and other figures

The Worship of Shin Upagutta

 

Chapter (2)

Beliefs Mixed into Theravada

The Belief in the Gandhari Arts

Astrological Beliefs

The Comforting Scriptures of the Yadus

The Worship of Naga and Remnants of Belief

Belief in Bad Omens and the like

Belief in Chanting Mantras

Solving problems with Astrology

The practice of Siddhi (magical powers)

 

Chapter (3)

Theravada and Foreign Beliefs/Worship

The Revolt of the Foreign Worship

The Naga Garuḍa Jātaka

The Theravada view on the Savior

Theravada and Belief in Bad Omens

Jātakas that Counter Bad Omens

The 5 original tenets of Theravada Buddhism

Ensuring correct belief and worship

Conclusion

Bibliography

 

 

Theravada Buddhism

(Part One)

Chapter (1)

Theravada and Mahayana

A Brief Account of the Buddha's Life

The Bodhisattva, Prince Siddhartha, was born from the great queen Sirimahāmāyā, wife of King Suddhodana of Kapilavatthu, in the Lumbini grove on the full moon day of Kason in the 68th year of the Mahāsakkarāj era. At the age of 16, the Bodhisattva, together with Princess Yasodharā, enjoyed royal pleasures in three palaces until the age of 29.

Afterward, upon seeing the four great signs and feeling a sense of religious urgency (saṃvega), he went forth into the forest and practiced the Dhamma. He arduously practiced austerities known as Dukkara-cariyā. Not finding the true Dhamma, he switched to practicing the Middle Path (Majjhimā-paṭipadā). On the full moon day of Kason in the 103rd year of the Mahāsakkarāj era, he attained Buddhahood.

After attaining Buddhahood, he dispensed the cool, immortal nectar of the Dhamma to gods, humans, and brahmas. He preached the Dhamma sermons for a full 45 years.

At the age of 80, on the full moon day of Kason in the 148th year of the Mahāsakkarāj era, in the Sal grove of the Malla kings in the city of Kusināra, he attained Parinibbāna.

 

Explanation of Eras

Mahāsakkarāj refers to the era established by the ancient kings before the Buddha's appearance. Sāsanā Sakkarāj (Buddhist Era) is the era counted from the year of the First Saṅgāyana (Council) after the Buddha's Parinibbāna. Myanmar Sakkarāj is the era established under King Popa Sawrahan. The Christian Era (BC) refers to the years before the birth of Christ. The Christian Era (AD) is counted from the years after the birth of Christ. The Buddhist Era is 1182 years older than the Burmese Era.

It is 544 years older than the Christian Era. The Christian Era (AD) is 638 years older than the Burmese Era. Therefore, Buddhist histories have established 544 BC as the year of the Lord Buddha's Parinibbāna. This differs slightly from what world history states.

 

The Cause of the Sangha Schism

After the Lord Buddha's Parinibbāna, the disciples, the Arahat Sangha, followed and practiced the sermons preached by the Lord Buddha with one accord. When it reached 100 years into the Sāsana, views began to change within the world of the Arahats.

New ideas emerged. They began to revise the Buddha's Vinaya rules. These Arahats were the Vajjiputtaka monks from the city of Vesāli, also called the Vajji-country monks. The Vajji-country monks were practicing ten points (dasavatthūni) that went against the Lord Buddha's Vinaya teachings. The ten unwholesome points that these individuals revised and practiced are as follows:

(1) Siṅgiloṇakappa: They ruled that it was permissible to store salt in a horn and mix it with food to eat every day. (According to the Vinaya, if an Arahat stores provisions for themselves and uses them with alms food on a later day, it is a pācittiya offense.)

(2) Dvaṅgulakappa: They ruled that Arahats could consume food up to two finger-breadths of the sun's shadow past midday. (According to the Vinaya, if an Arahat consumes staple food after midday, it is a pācittiya offense for eating at the wrong time.)

(3) Gāmantarakappa: They ruled that within a single monastery boundary, the Sangha could split into groups to perform Sangha acts. (According to the Vinaya, within one monastery boundary, Sangha members must sit close enough to be within an arm's length of each other to perform acts of Sangha unity. Performing Sangha acts as separate groups invalidates the act. It is an offense due to causing disunity in the Sangha.)

(4) Āvāsakappa: They ruled that at a Sangha meeting, if the Sangha was not fully assembled, the Sangha members present could perform a Sangha act, intending to get the consent of the absent members later.

(At a Sangha assembly, monks who cannot attend must give their consent beforehand for whatever is decided. Consent given after the assembly is not valid. Therefore, a decision made by only a portion of the Sangha without full consent is not valid. A decision made without Sangha unity is also not successful.)

(5) Anumatikappa: They ruled that they could adopt and perform a custom that was practiced by their teachers. Because they were following their teachers, it was not an offense, they claimed. (If the customs and practices of the teachers are in accordance with the Vinaya, it is not an offense. However, if they are not in accordance with the Vinaya, it is an offense.)

(6) Āciṇṇakappa: They ruled that if a monk, who had indicated he was finished eating (pavārita), had a reason to go to another village, he could eat alms food without performing the act of having it made leftover (atireka-vinayakamma). (A monk is considered to have finished eating when he says "Enough." He is not allowed to eat more. If he wishes to eat again, he must offer the food to another monk. Only when that monk gives it back does he have permission to eat. The act of doing so is called performing the atireka-vinayakamma. Eating without performing this act is a pācittiya offense.)

(7) Amathitakappa: They ruled that a monk who had finished eating could drink buttermilk that had not yet turned into curd, without performing the atireka-vinayakamma. (In the Vinaya, it is loosely claimed that buttermilk, whether it is considered a staple food or not, is exempt from the Buddha's rules on food, being considered a non-staple food that has not yet turned into curd.)

(8) Jalogi: They ruled that Arahats could drink unfermented toddy and palm juice that had not yet become intoxicants while it was being fermented from jaggery, palm sugar, and molasses. (Arahats are not allowed to consume intoxicating liquor, palm wine, rice wine, or unfermented spirits. Consuming them is a pācittiya offense.)

(9) Adasaka-nisīdana: They ruled that it was proper for monks to use a sitting mat without a border of the prescribed size. (The Buddha ruled that a borderless sitting mat (nisīdana) is not required.)

(10) Jātarūpa-rajata: They ruled that monks could accept gold and silver as alms. (The Buddha ruled that monks must not accept gold and silver.)

 

Theravada and the Mahāsaṅghika

The monks of the Vajji country were openly and actively practicing the ten points mentioned above (dasavatthūni) as if they were legitimate acts. When the great elder Venerable Mahā Yasa heard this news, he came to the Mahāvana monastery in the city of Vesāli. At that time, it coincided with the Sangha's Uposatha day. On that day, the monks had placed a large golden bowl in the middle of the Sangha assembly.

They preached to the laymen and laywomen who came to hear the Dhamma on Uposatha day to make donations for their requisites. The people donated according to their capacity. Venerable Mahā Yasa told them not to do this, as this practice was not in accordance with the Vinaya Dhamma. However, the Vajji monks did not accept Venerable Mahā Yasa's words.

They accused him, saying, "Venerable Mahā Yasa is the one obstructing the faith of the devotees." Finally, they performed an act of suspension (Ukkhepaniyakamma) against Venerable Mahā Yasa, banning him from the Sangha.

Venerable Mahā Yasa, being in disagreement with the Vajji country monks, had to gather monks who shared his views. At that time, he was able to gather a large number of monks who wished to accept the Buddha's teachings with reverence. Venerable Mahā Yasa, together with the Sangha who agreed with him, decided to hold a council (Saṅgāyana) on the Buddha's teachings.

At the Saṅgāyana, all the attending venerable Sangha "decided to accept and practice the Dhamma teachings of the Lord Buddha as they were in their original form, without alteration, addition, or subtraction." This sect later became known as the "Theravada" sect.

When the monks of the Vajji country heard this news, they also gathered monks who agreed with them. Then, with 10,000 monks in agreement, they held a separate council in Kosambi. They called their council the "Mahāsangīti" (The Great Recital). They also named their monastic group the "Mahāsāṅghika sect."

Therefore, 100 years into the Sāsana, the world of the Buddha's monastic disciples split into two major sects:

(1)   The Theravada Buddhist Sect

(2)   The Mahāsāṅghika Buddhist Sect

 

Buddhist Sects

After the great Mahāsāṅghika sect broke away from the original Buddhism, other groups of monks also became interested in forming their own sects. Powerful Sangha leaders formed new sects whenever conditions were right and the opportunity arose.

From the great Mahāsāṅghika sect

(1) The Gokulika sect
(2) The Ekavyahārika sect

split into 2 sects.

...then from the Gokulika sect

(3) The Paññattivāda sect

(4) The Bahussutīya sect

split into 2 sects.

Then from the Bahussutīya sect

(5) The Cetiyavāda sect

split off as 1 sect.

Therefore, including the original, the Mahāsāṅghika sect split into a total of (6) sects.

 

Following the Mahāsāṅghika sect, the original Theravada also split into various sects.

Initially, from the original Theravada sect...

(1) The Mahīsasaka sect

(2) The Vajjiputtaka sect

split into 2 sects.

(3) The Dhammuttariya sect

(4) The Bhadrayānika sect

(5) The Chandāgārika sect

(6) The Sammitīya sect

split into 4 sects.

...then from the Mahīsasaka sect

(7) The Sabbatthivāda sect

(8) The Dhammaguttika sect

split into 2 sects.

...then from the Sabbatthivāda sect

(9) The Kassapīya sect

broke away again.

...then from the Kassapīya sect

(10) The Sankantika sect

broke away again.

...then from the Sankantika sect

(11) The Suttavāda sect

broke away again.

 

Therefore, including the original Theravada, there were a total of (12) Theravada sects. Including the Theravada and Mahāsāṅghika major sects, the total number of sects was (18).

This account of 18 sects is mentioned in the Dīpavaṃsa chronicle. In addition to these sects, the commentary on the Kathāvatthu mentions that there were further splits, such as the Pubbaseliya, Aparaseliya, Rājagirika, Siddhatthika, Hemavatika, Vājiriya, Uttarāpathaka, Vetullaka, and Hetuvāda sects.

Furthermore, in the records of Vasumitra, written in Sanskrit, other sect names are also present.

In the records of the great Sanskrit scholar Vasu, new and distinct sect names are found again. In Vasu's record, a name called the "Vibhajjavāda sect" is included. This sect's name is not in the above list of 18 sects. This sect is an important one for the parent Theravada sect. It is also a notable sect in the history of the Sāsana.

The sects mentioned were ones that split within about 200 years of the Sāsana. Around the time of King Asoka's ascent to the throne, the various sects were growing with their own strength and influence, and among them, the Vibhajjavāda sect was a great sect that received the patronage and support of King Asoka.

 

Theravada and the Vibhajjavāda Sect

The records state that the Vibhajjavāda sect was a schism from the original Theravada. It cannot be said at what time it split. However, it can be said that the Vibhajjavāda sect was already flourishing during the reign of the great King Asoka. After King Asoka ascended the throne and became a Buddhist, disputes concerning Buddhism arose in India. It was no longer the pure Buddhism. Heretics from outside the Sāsana had entered the Sāsana and become monks. However, they did not strive for the Dhamma of monks. They only continued the work of heretics. They did not understand the Buddha's Dhamma. Asoka had to take action for the purification of the Sāsana.

He questioned the monks on the Dhamma. At that time, when asked, some pseudo-monks could not answer. When asked, "What is the doctrine of the Blessed One?" some monks said, "The Blessed One has the doctrine of Sassata (Eternalism)." Others answered, "The Blessed One has the doctrine of Uccheda (Annihilationism)." Asoka had these pseudo-monks disrobed and expelled from the Sangha.

King Asoka asked the good monks, "Venerable Sirs, what is the doctrine of the Blessed One?" At that time, the monks replied, "Great King, the Blessed One is a Vibhajjavādin, one who analyzes and teaches, distinguishing and setting aside the doctrines of Sassata and Uccheda, and speaking from the middle."

When King Asoka heard this answer, he concluded that he had found the true and correct monks. He then promoted and patronized the Sangha of that Vibhajjavāda sect. At that time, it can be said that the Vibhajjavāda sect was the main object of worship for the great King Asoka.

The tenets of the Vibhajjavāda sect are not recorded in the histories of the Sāsana. The reason this is not shown is likely because their views, tenets, and Dhamma were the same as the original Theravada. Because their tenets were the same, the Vibhajjavāda sect was later able to merge back with the original Theravada.

 

The Division by the Brahmins

That the Buddhist sects split so much within a few hundred years cannot be separated from the divisive and subversive actions of the Brahmins. The Brahmins were those who viewed Buddhism with hostility. From the very time the Buddha appeared, the Brahmins considered him an enemy.

It is true. The Buddha preached by refuting the important tenets held by the Brahmins. The Brahmins held to the doctrine of Attā (self). The Buddha, however, mainly preached the doctrine of Anattā (no-self), which was like being struck a blow for the Brahmins, causing them pain. In addition to this, in the social sphere, the Brahmins had established the caste system and separated the classes of people. The Buddha also refuted and preached against this caste system. How could the Brahmins be pleased?

The Brahmins established the eternal creator god, Brahma. The Buddha denied the creator god. Because the Buddha preached by refuting the core tenets of the Brahmins, the Buddha became their enemy. They became a hostile force.

By the time of the Asokan era, with the strong support for Buddhism, the Brahmins were obscure and diminished. At such a time, some Brahmins entered and subverted Buddhism from within. The Brahmins, cloaked as Buddhists, studied the Buddhist Piṭakas and wrote scriptures. They inserted their own views and tenets into Buddhism. There were also those who liked the newly inserted tenets. These individuals accepted the scriptures containing the new tenets and established new sects and groups. In this way, new sects appeared one after another.

As early as the 3rd century B.C., during the time of King Asoka, the Mahāvastu-avadāna scripture, which came from the Mahāsāṅghika sect, had sneakily inserted the doctrine of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Later, that Bodhisattva became a main object of worship for the Mahayana sect.

By the time the Mahayana sect had clearly emerged, they had also adopted and accepted the Brahminical doctrines of Tantra and Mantra. In the end, Buddhism in India became mixed and confused with Hindu-Brahminism.

 

Buddhism in the Sunga Period

The Buddhist sects were active throughout the Indian subcontinent. Some sects grew and developed. Some sects, however, were weak. If the ruling king promoted a sect, it would inevitably flourish. Among those sects, the one that rose to prominence due to King Asoka's promotion was the great Theravada Vibhajjavāda sect.

Along with the Vibhajjavāda sect, there were two other prominent major sects. These were the Theravada-derived Sabbatthivāda (Sarvāstivāda) sect and the Mahāsāṅghika sect.

Therefore, in the post-Asokan period, three major prominent sects can be seen. They are...

(1) Theravada and Vibhajjavāda sect

(2) Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect

(3) Mahāsāṅghika sect.

While these great sects were flourishing, dynastic changes occurred in Asoka's empire. In the Magadha kingdom, in the year 185 B.C., a Brahmin named Pushyamitra overthrew the Mauryan dynasty and established the Sunga dynasty. King Sunga Pushyamitra, being of Brahmin descent, primarily worshipped the Brahmin religion.

He declared the Brahmin religion as the state religion. He performed great Yajña sacrifices, killing animals. The Brahmins, having regained their power, began to suppress Buddhism, which they had held as their main enemy.

King Sunga Pushyamitra, yielding to the wishes of the Brahmins, issued proclamations. He even announced that he would give a reward of 1000 gold coins for the head of any Buddhist monk within his empire. Buddhist monks, unable to live safely in the Magadha and Kosala regions of central India, had to flee to the frontiers.

At that time, the powerful Theravada Sangha community migrated to the Sanchi (Sāñcī) stupa near the city of Vidisha (Vidiśā).

The Sangha of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect migrated to the Urumuṇḍa (Govardhana) mountain near the city of Mathura in the northwestern part of India.

At that time, the Sangha of the Vibhajjavāda sect also had to migrate to the southern regions. The Sangha of the Vibhajjavāda sect, having had connections with Venerable Mahinda and Sanghamitta, crossed over to the island of Sri Lanka. There, they joined with the Sri Lankan Sangha and continued to propagate the Sāsana. From that time on, the name Vibhajjavāda disappeared, and it became one and the same with the original Theravada.

 

King Kanishka and Buddhism

After the Sunga dynasty ended in Magadha, the Kanva dynasty was established. As that dynasty was also conquered by the Andhras, the entire southeastern part of India fell under the hands of the Andhra kings. At that time, the entire northern region of India was also invaded, conquered, and ruled by foreign peoples. Among them, the most prominent dynasty was the Kushan dynasty.

The Kushan people conquered the entire northern region of India and, starting from 40 A.D., established the Kushan dynasty. Among these kings, King Kanishka, who reigned from 120 to 162 A.D., was the most powerful.

King Kanishka was originally a follower of a Persian religion. Later, after becoming a Buddhist, he gave great support to the flourishing of the Buddhist Sāsana. Buddhists call this king the "Second Asoka." King Kanishka primarily supported and revered the monks of the Sabbatthivāda sect, which was a branch of the Theravada sect. At that time, the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect was very powerful.

At that time, the original Theravada and Vibhajjavāda Sangha were based in Sanchi in the south of India. The two sects were very far apart.

After King Kanishka became a Buddhist, he built numerous religious monuments. He searched for the Buddha's relics and enshrined them in stupas and pagodas.

In the capital city of Puruṣapura, he built a great stupa that was over 160 cubits high and 300 cubits in circumference, which became famous as the Kanishka Stupa. Near the stupa, he also planted and worshipped a Mahabodhi tree. He built a large monastery for the venerable monks to reside in. It was even called the "Kanishka Monastery."

The great king entrusted the Kanishka monastery and other religious structures to the great teachers of the Sabbatthivāda sect for their administration and care. At that time, the Kanishka monastery was a great center for Buddhist studies. Even when King Kanishka was no more, the monks of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect continued to carry out the work of propagating the Sāsana from that monastery.

In the records of Chinese monks, it is said that for about 1,000 years, that monastery was one that taught the scriptures of the Theravada lineage. According to Chinese records, the monks of the Sabbatthivāda sect even called themselves "Theravada." However, their "Theravada" was not the original parent Theravada but the Sabbatthivāda branch of Theravada.

According to archaeological research, a relic casket of King Kanishka found in the area has an inscription in Sanskrit. The inscription "Ācāryāṇāṃ Sarvāstivādīnāṃ parigrahe" means "For the acceptance of the teachers of the Sarvāstivāda school." Therefore, it can be concluded that the Theravada Sangha at the Kanishka monastery were members of the Sabbatthivāda sect.

 

The Sangha Council of Kanishka

During the reign of King Kanishka, the Buddhist sects in India were quite strong. They were not in agreement regarding doctrinal matters. There were disputes. King Kanishka was not pleased with this division among the Buddhists. He wanted all the sects to unite and be in harmony.

To achieve this unity, he realized that it would only be possible by holding a council like King Asoka had done. Therefore, he consulted with the monks of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect, whom he revered, and decided to hold a council to codify the Buddha's teachings. He invited Sangha members from all sects within his country. Almost all sects from the Mahāsāṅghika lineage attended.

It is said that only a few venerable monks from the southern Theravada attended this council. Since the council was led by the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect, the Sangha of the original (parent) Theravada attended only as observers. Furthermore, the parent Theravada Sangha did not include this council in their list of councils.

There was also a Sangha sect that did not attend at all. This sect was the Theravada Vibhajjavāda, which had led King Asoka's council. This sect had already merged with the parent Theravada sect. King Kanishka appointed the teacher Venerable Vasumitra of the Sabbatthivāda sect as the chief, and with 500 venerable monks from various sects, he held the council.

From that council, the monks compiled the Mahāvibhāṣā, a commentary on the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. They are:

(1) The Sutta Piṭaka Vibhāṣā commentary (gāthā one hundred thousand)

(2) The Vinaya Piṭaka Vibhāṣā commentary (gāthā one hundred thousand)

(3) The Abhidhamma Piṭaka Vibhāṣā commentary (gāthā one hundred thousand).

King Kanishka had these three hundred thousand gāthās of the Vibhāṣā commentaries inscribed in Sanskrit on copper plates, which were then enshrined in a stupa, it is said.

These Vibhāṣā commentaries were later translated into the Chinese language.

King Kanishka undertook the work of propagating the Sāsana not only within India but also in foreign countries. Therefore, during his reign, Buddhism spread to neighboring countries.

 

Theravada, Mahayana, Hinayana

At the time of Kanishka's council, the name Mahayana did not yet exist. King Kanishka, with the intention of uniting the religious sects, gathered all the sects and held the council. However, Kanishka's intention was not realized. The religious sects did not disappear. New sects continued to emerge.

Some sects did not accept the teachings of the Theravada Sabbatthivāda sect, which was established under King Kanishka. They continued to develop new doctrines. These sects prospered in the northern regions. Their missionary activities were also widespread.

Due to this widespread influence, between the 2nd and 4th centuries A.D., these Sangha sects began to call their sect "Mahayana," which means the "Great Vehicle." Those that did not share their tenets, such as the Sabbatthivāda sect, were called the "Hinayana" sect or the "Lesser Vehicle," a pejorative term.

At the time of this naming, the original parent Theravada had no connection with the Mahayanists. The sects that the Mahayanists called "Hinayana" were some of the sects that had split off from Kanishka's council. Later, the great Mahayana sect spread to Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, Mongolia, China, Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.

The sects that were initially called "Hinayana" gradually weakened and faded away in India. At that time, the great parent Theravada sect had reached and established itself in countries like Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Later on, they also began to refer to the Mahayana sect, which did not share their tenets, as "Hinayana," mixing the terms.

Some historians, because the parent Theravada flourished in the southern regions, call it "Southern Buddhism." Because the Mahayana sect flourished in the northern regions, they call it "Northern Buddhism." The Southern Buddhism of Theravada and the Northern Buddhism of Mahayana have many differences in their tenets. Only by searching carefully can one find a few similarities. Most of their doctrines are irreconcilably different.

 

The Main Path of the Mahayana Sect

The Mahayana scriptures describe three kinds of practice:

They are:

(1) Sāvakayāna (The Vehicle of the Disciple)

(2) Paccekabuddhayāna (The Vehicle of the Solitary Buddha)

(3) Buddhayāna (The Vehicle of the Buddha)

These three "yānas" are the same as the Sāvakabodhi, Sammāsambodhi in Theravada. These three are all paths to Nibbāna. However, Mahayanists consider the Sāvakayāna and Paccekabuddhayāna to be selfish practices and do not encourage them.

They accept that only the Buddhayāna can save beings and is the supreme path. Therefore, they revere the Bodhisattva path. They make and worship many images of Bodhisattvas. Similarly, they sculpt and worship images of Gautama Buddha. Later, worship with Gāthā and Mantras also became widespread.

Among the Bodhisattvas worshipped by Mahayanists, the following prominent Bodhisattvas are found:

Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva: This Bodhisattva is the most famous. Being a Bodhisattva of great compassion, he is one who can even save those who have fallen into the Avīci hell.

Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva: He is one who inspires human beings to understand the true Dhamma. He holds a sword in one hand and a scripture in the other. Holding the sword is to destroy those who do evil. Holding the scripture shows that he constantly practices the ten Pāramīs.

Vajrapāṇi Bodhisattva: He holds a vajra (thunderbolt) like Indra. This Bodhisattva also destroys those who do evil and commit sins.

Maitreya Bodhisattva: This Bodhisattva is the most gentle. He is the Bodhisattva who will become a true Buddha in the future. (This Bodhisattva is also found in Theravada.)

According to the Mahayana sect, every person must take the Bodhisattva vow to be able to save sentient beings. The personal practices of Bodhisattvas include fulfilling the six Pāramīs: Dāna (Generosity), Sīla (Morality), Vīriya (Effort), Khanti (Patience), Jhāna (Meditation), and Paññā (Wisdom). A distinctive feature is that Mahayanists do not place much emphasis on the Vinaya rules. They hold that strict Vinaya rules are not necessary for Bodhisattvas who aspire to Buddhahood.

According to Mahayana belief, all sentient beings are great Bodhisattvas. They differ only in the maturity of their pāramīs, but their fundamental basis is the same. In the end, all sentient beings will attain liberation and reach Nibbāna.

 

The Fading of Religion in India

When studying the reasons for the decline of religion in the central land where the Buddha appeared, various underlying causes are found. Among them, the deviation from the proper monastic conduct and practices by the monks of the Buddha's Sāsana is found as one reason. The venerable monks did not strive for their primary monastic duties; they longed for and engaged in a life of intellectual pursuits and indulgence.

These lifestyles included being a Siddhi master, a Stupa owner, a Vijjādhara, an alchemist, and a sorcerer. The path of seeking these intellectual pursuits was initiated by the ancient Indian ascetics (ṛṣis). This doctrine, in the hands of the Hindu Brahmins, was called the Tantra sect and was widely practiced.

The ancient ṛṣis composed Tantric scriptures containing gāthās, mantras, and incantations that praised the qualities of various nats and gods. The sect that follows and practices based on these scriptures is called the "Tantra sect." There are two types of Tantra sects: the left-hand path and the right-hand path. Practitioners of the left-hand path devise gāthās, mantras, spells, incantations, and hand gestures that can command malevolent beings like ghosts, demons, giants, nat-demons, female nat-demons, and rakshasas to inflict suffering and misfortune.

The Burmese people call this left-hand path "the lower path."

The right-hand path involves striving to overcome diseases and ailments and to increase wealth and prosperity through gāthās and mantras that praise the qualities of Brahmas and nats. The Burmese call this "the upper path."

Emulating this Tantra sect of the Hindu Brahmins, Buddhist monks also established "Buddhist Tantra." They invented monastic conduct and practices. Among them were practices that were identical to those of the Hindu Brahmins. There were also distinct practices.

The activities of the Tantra Buddhist sect also involved studying and practicing gāthā, mantra, spells, incantations, hand gestures, magic, the art of ghosts, the art of possession, the art of astrology, and the art of alchemy. It is said that in Tibet, due to proficiency in magic, there were 84 individuals who became Siddhas. It is not known how they disappeared.

The monks of the Buddhist Sāsana in India also longed for and practiced lifestyles like being intellectual Siddhi masters, driven by a thirst for power. They neglected the practical and beneficial work for humanity as taught by the Buddha. Even at the great center of learning like the Nālandā Buddhist University, which was extremely famous in India, they encouraged and taught the kind of knowledge that sought to obtain beautiful women from paintings through the thirst for power.

 

Chapter (2)

The Spread of Theravada Religion

In the 12th century A.D., Buddhism disappeared from India. By that time, Buddhism was already spreading and flourishing throughout the Asian continent. In some parts of Asia, Buddhism had arrived and was spreading since the time of Asoka, or even earlier.

Just as Mahayana Buddhism was established in the great northern regions, Theravada Buddhism was also spreading in the southern regions. The countries where Theravada Buddhism spread were what are now called Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Let us first briefly examine the history of how Theravada Buddhism arrived and spread to these countries.

 

How Sri Lanka Became Theravada

In the 235th year of the Buddhist Era, after the Buddha's Parinibbāna, King Asoka dispatched missionary monks to nine countries and nine places to propagate the Sāsana. Sri Lanka, then called the island of Laṅkā, was included among these places.

The elder monks who undertook the mission to Sri Lanka were the king's son, the Venerable Mahinda, and five accompanying monks. The Venerable Mahinda and his companions arrived in Sri Lanka on the full moon day of Nayon in the year 236. Later, the king's daughter, the Theri Sanghamitta, was also sent to ordain the women of Sri Lanka as bhikkhunīs (nuns).

The Theri Sanghamitta brought a southern branch of the Mahabodhi tree from Buddhagayā to Sri Lanka. It was planted in the city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, and its lineage continues uninterrupted to this day.

At the time of Venerable Mahinda's arrival, King Devānampiyatissa was ruling in Sri Lanka. The king had only been coronated for about a month.

King Tissa, one month after becoming king, went hunting on the Mihintale mountain on the full moon day of Nayon. It was on this mountain that he met the Venerable Mahinda.

The Venerable Mahinda preached the Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta to King Devānampiyatissa. At the end of the sermon, the king, along with his retinue of 40,000, established themselves in the Three Refuges and became Buddhists.

The Venerable Mahinda and his companions observed the rains retreat (vassa) at the Cetiyapabbata on the full moon day of Waso, and ordained 55 men, including Ariṭṭha, as monks. They propagated the Sāsana at Mihintale during that year.

King Devānampiyatissa built and donated the Mahāvihāra monastery for the elder monks to reside in. He also built stupas, pagodas, Bodhi trees, boundary markers, and hermitages.

Subsequent kings also continued to support the Buddhist Sāsana. Among these kings, some emerged who gave special support to Buddhism.

King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi built the monastery called Lohapāsāda. In the city of Anuradhapura, he also built the great stupa. This stupa remains a prominent stupa in Sri Lanka to this day. A unique achievement of the Sri Lankan Sangha was their ability to commit the Buddha's teachings to writing on palm leaves by holding a council.

 

The Sangha Sects of Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, sects also arose concerning Theravada Buddhism. This division was also due to the support given by the ruling kings.

In ancient Sri Lanka, there were three major sects. They were:

(1) The Mahāvihāravāsī sect

(2) The Abhayagirivāsī sect

(3) The Jetavanavāsī sect.

 

The Mahāvihāravāsī sect: This great sect was the original sect established since the time of Venerable Mahinda. Because the elder monks resided continuously at the Mahāvihāra monastery built by King Devānampiyatissa, it came to be known as the "Mahāvihāravāsī sect."

 

The Abhayagirivāsī sect: King Vaṭṭagāmaṇi, while fleeing from the threat of the Tamil invaders, was supported by the venerable monks. When this king ascended the throne for a second time, he built the Abhayagiri monastery and the Abhayagiri stupa and offered them to the Venerable Tissa who had helped him.

Because this Venerable Tissa was of the Kula Tissa clan, the monks of the Mahāvihāravāsī sect performed the Pabbājanīyakamma (act of temporary expulsion) against him. At that time, Venerable Tissa's disciple, Mahādhammarakkhita, protested. The monks, claiming he was a supporter of the impure, performed the Ukkhepaniyakamma (act of suspension) against this monk as well.

This monk, being dissatisfied with the suspension, took 500 monks and left the Mahāvihāravāsī sect. From that time on, it became known as the Abhayagirivāsī sect. This schism occurred in the 454th year of the Sāsana.

 

The Jetavanavāsī sect: This sect appeared during the reign of King Mahasena. King Mahasena built the Jetavana monastery within the great Mahāvihāra monastery. Monks from the Dakkhiṇagiri monastery came to reside there. These monks did not associate with the monks of the Mahāvihāravāsī and established a separate sect. It was called the Jetavanavāsī sect.

The Jetavanavāsīs, in conspiracy with King Mahasena to destroy the Mahāvihāravāsī sect, destroyed the great Mahāvihāra monastery. They destroyed the Lohapāsāda palace-monastery built by the great King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi. As a result, the great Mahāvihāra monastery remained devoid of monks for nine years.

The three major sects mentioned above remained established in Sri Lanka for many years. When King Parākramabāhu I of the Sirisanghabodhi dynasty ascended the throne, he recognized the monks of the Mahāvihāravāsī sect as the pure sect. He had the monks from the other two sects, whom he deemed to be of corrupt practice, disrobed.

From that time on, only the Mahāvihāravāsī sect remained.

 

Modern Day Sects

Currently in Sri Lanka, all three of the ancient major sects have disappeared. Due to the invasion and rule of foreigners and natural disasters, the Theravada Sāsana weakened and faded. Therefore, in later periods, the Sāsana had to be revived with the help of Myanmar and Thailand.

Currently in Sri Lanka, the following major sects are flourishing:

Siam sect: In the Buddhist Era 2298, during the reign of King Kirti Sri Rajasinha, as there were no monks, monks were invited from Siam (Thailand) to re-establish the Sāsana. This sect is called the Siam sect (Siam Nikāya).

Amarapura sect: In the Buddhist Era 2344, six Sri Lankan lay disciples and one upāsaka arrived in the royal city of Amarapura in Myanmar and received the higher ordination (upasampadā) under the tutelage of the Ñāṇābhivaṃsa Dhammasenāpati elder at the Shwegu Gyi monastery. Subsequently, other Sri Lankan monks came and received new ordinations. The lineage from these monks became prominent in Sri Lanka as the Amarapura sect (Amarapura Nikāya).

Ramanna sect: In the Buddhist Era 2406, Venerable Dhammālaṅkāra, Venerable Sumana Tissa, and 17 other monks from Sri Lanka came to Pegu in the Ramanna division and received new ordination at the Kalyāṇī Sīmā under the tutelage of the Saddhammadhajamahāthera from Yangon.

They received a new ordination at the Kalyani Sima under him as their preceptor. This sect is called the Ramanna sect (Ramanna Nikāya).

Furthermore, just before World War II, some Sri Lankans came to the Mahāvisuddhārāma monastery in Mandalay to study. Among these monks, the Venerable Siri Saddhamma established the Mahāvisuddhārāma monastery upon his return to Sri Lanka and propagated the Sāsana, leading to the flourishing of his disciples. However, after the passing of that venerable teacher, due to the weakness of his disciple monks, the Shwegyin sect of Sri Lanka is no longer prominent.

 

How Thailand Became Theravada

In the early period, the land of Thailand was not the land of the Thai people. It was a country founded by the Mon people. The Mon people established two Mon kingdoms in what is now Thailand. The southern Mon kingdom was called Dvāravatī. Its capital was Lavo (Lopburi). The city of Lopburi still exists today. It is located on the banks of the Mae Nam River, north of the capital city of Bangkok.

The northern kingdom was called Haribhuñjaya. Its capital was Lamphun. That city also still exists near the city of Chiang Mai.

The Dvāravatī kingdom was at its peak in 700 A.D. Around the 10th century A.D., the Mon kingdom was destroyed due to the invasion of the Cambodian people. These Khmer (Cambodian) people conquered and ruled up to the central part of Thailand. Therefore, the Mon princess Cāmadevī gathered new forces and re-established the Haribhuñjaya kingdom.

At that time, the Thai people from the north of China gradually migrated southwards. In the 11th century, the Thai people reached the territory ruled by the Cambodians, called Khmers.

They lived under the rule of the Khmers. At that time, the Thai people worshipped the Mahayana Buddhism and Brahminism that their rulers, the Khmers, worshipped. Therefore, the culture of the Thai people was influenced by Mahayana and Hindu Brahminical culture.

Even today, traces of Mahayana and Hindu religious culture are clearly visible in the customs and court ceremonies of the Thai people.

 

The Founding of Thailand

Around the middle of the 13th century A.D., when the Thai people became powerful, they attacked and drove out the Cambodians. They also destroyed and conquered the small Haribhuñjaya kingdom. The Thai people established the Lanna kingdom in the north and the Sukhothai kingdom in the central region. From that time on, it became known as the kingdom of Thailand.

After the Thai people established the two kingdoms of Lanna and Sukhothai, the Thai kings sent monks to Sri Lanka to study. They also invited learned teachers from Sri Lanka to Thailand and had them establish the Theravada Sāsana.

By doing so, the Mahayana and Brahminical doctrines they had accepted while under Cambodian rule gradually faded and disappeared. Later, Theravada became dominant and became the state religion.

In the middle of the 19th century A.D., the ruling King Mongkut was a devout monk. He was also extremely respectful of the Theravada Buddhist religion.

For the purification of the Sāsana and to ensure adherence to the Vinaya rules, he founded the Dhammayuttika Nikāya sect.

From that time on, in Thailand:

(1)   The Dhammayut sect (Dhammayuttika Nikāya)

(2)   The Mahanikai sect (Mahā Nikāya) arose as two major sects.

 

How Cambodia Became Theravada

As early as the 1st century A.D., the Indochina peninsula was a route for Indian merchants. In ancient times, Indochina was called Anam. The Pallava people from India came to the Anam region for trade. Some Pallavas established themselves in the region of Champa, and from there they spread to Sumatra, Java, and the Eastern Indian archipelago.

Over the years, Champa became a bustling port for trade.

The first king to rule the Champa region was a Brahmin of the Kaundinya lineage from the Pallava capital of Kanchi in India. When he was coronated, he took the title "Varman," following the custom of the Pallava kings. At that time, the kings primarily worshipped Hinduism. It is known that the Sabbatthivāda sect, which branched off from Theravada, also had a small presence.

While Hindu kings ruled in southern Cambodia, the northern region was inhabited by a people called the Funan. These people established the kingdom of Funan in 435 A.D. The Funan kings built Buddhist religious structures in their territory. They built stupas and pagodas. They adopted Buddhism from the islands of Sumatra and Srivijaya.

In the 9th century A.D., King Jaya Varman founded the city known as Angkor in Cambodia. The meaning of Angkor is "royal capital." In the royal capital of Angkor...

He also built the magnificent temple known as Angkor Wat. This great temple is one of the wonders of the world. Although the Angkorian kings were followers of Hinduism, they also supported and promoted Mahayana Buddhism.

 

Jayavarman VII and Buddhism

Around the 11th century A.D., kings who were devout worshippers of Buddhism emerged. At that time, the form of Buddhism was Mahayana Buddhism.

Among the kings who supported Buddhism, King Jayavarman VII was the one who gave the greatest support. This king also diligently worked for the development of other state affairs. He built the new city of Angkor in the 12th century.

The new city of Angkor was built in a magnificent square shape, two miles long and two miles wide. In the center of the city, he built the Buddhist temple known as Bayon. The Bayon temple is 130 feet high. King Varman decorated the great temple with many artistic works. At the central viewing point of the temple, he had 102 stone Buddha images carved and worshipped.

Five years after completing the palace, King Varman also built the Ta Prohm monastery. The great monastery was built in dedication to the king's mother. For the construction of the Ta Prohm monastery, 79,365 people from 3,140 villages were assigned to the work.

In that monastery:

18 great teachers,

2,740 monks,

2,202 lay disciples resided.

As early as 1200 A.D., the Varman dynasty also came to an end. In the 12th century A.D., a monk from Myanmar went to Cambodia and preached Theravada Buddhism. At that time, the Cambodian kings were fond of Theravada Buddhism and gave their support and assistance. Later, as Theravada Buddhism spread, by the end of the 13th century, Mahayana and Hinduism had faded and disappeared.

In the 14th century, they also made contact with Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka and Theravada from Thailand. From then on, Theravada became the foundation and has remained so.

Currently, in the country of Cambodia, Theravada Buddhism is flourishing like the rising sun and moon.

 

How Laos Became Theravada

The country of Laos (Lao) emerged as a separate nation only in the 14th century. The Khmer people provided assistance for the emergence of Laos. In the early period of Laos, Mahayana Buddhism also flourished. It is said that Theravada Buddhism was received from the Khmers (Cambodians) and Thailand.

As the Laotian kings supported and promoted Theravada Buddhism, they were able to declare Theravada Buddhism as the state religion as early as the 14th century. Even during the period of communist rule, Theravada Buddhism did not waver or decline but remained steadfast. It can be said that the state of Buddhism did not decline but rather developed even more.

Currently, 95% of the population in Laos are followers of Theravada Buddhism.

 

Chapter (3)

The Theravada Councils

Preamble to the Councils

The Lord Buddha attained Parinibbāna in the Sal grove in the city of Kusināra on the full moon day of Kason in the 148th year of the Mahāsakkarāj era (544 B.C.). The Venerable Mahākassapa, with a following of 500 Arahats, was traveling from Pāvā to Kusināra to pay homage to the Blessed One.

The great elder and his retinue, due to the late season, were resting under a tree during their journey. At that time, an Ājīvaka ascetic was coming from Kusināra to Pāvā. The ascetic met Venerable Mahākassapa, who was taking a rest.

When the Venerable Mahākassapa asked about the Blessed One, the ascetic replied, "The Buddha has attained Parinibbāna." When the Sangha heard this news, they could not contain their grief and wept and lamented.

While the other Arahats were weeping, the monk Subhadda did not know he should weep; he was glad that the Buddha was no more. Subhadda spoke words of comfort to the weeping monks.

"Venerable sirs, why are you weeping? We are now free from the hand of the great ascetic Gotama. When Gotama was alive, he would give us instructions, saying, 'Do not do this; you must do that.' He controlled us. We could not do as we pleased, lest it be deemed an offense, and he would restrain us with rules. Gotama was one who oppressed and tormented us. Now, we can do as we wish, do what we want; we are free."

Upon hearing Subhadda's words, the great elder Venerable Mahākassapa thought to himself, "Even now, improper words are being spoken. Later, if more monks like this arise, unrighteousness will become widespread."

"The Dhamma teachings that the Lord Buddha preached will only be preserved if they are compiled in a council."

Venerable Mahākassapa and his group, upon arriving in Kusināra, performed the rites of cremating the Buddha's physical body and distributing the relics. Afterwards, on the 5th day of the waning moon of Nayon, a Sangha meeting was held at the relic distribution site.

At the great Sangha meeting, the great elder Venerable Mahākassapa proposed holding a council.

"Venerable sirs, if there are many corrupt monks like Subhadda, the noble teachings of the Lord Buddha could disappear. Only if the Buddha's teachings are preserved will the Buddha's Sāsana endure for long. As long as the teachings are preserved, it is as if the Lord Buddha is still living and present.

Therefore...

so that the true Dhamma does not fade,

so that the good Dhamma does not disappear,

so that the Adhamma does not spread,

so that those of wrong views do not gain power,

so that those of right views do not lose power...

let us gather and hold a council on the Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma teachings that the Lord Buddha preached," he proposed.

The Sangha responded to Venerable Mahākassapa's proposal, saying, "The matter your reverence has proposed is most fitting. For the holding of the council, may your reverence take the lead and select the appropriate Sangha members."

 

The First Council

The great elder Venerable Mahākassapa, to be able to hold the council, selected and made a list of 499 Arahats who were masters of the Pariyatti Dhamma and possessed of the six supernormal powers (paṭisambhidā).

The intention was for 500 Arahats to participate in the council. It was also intended for Venerable Ānanda to be included. However, at that time, Venerable Ānanda was still at the level of a Sotāpanna, so he could not yet be included in the list.

At that time, the other Sangha members submitted that although Venerable Ānanda was still a sekha (a learner), he was a great master of the Dhamma, one who could remember and recite the eighty-four thousand units of the Dhamma taught in the Lord Buddha's presence. They argued that it was not proper to hold the council by excluding Venerable Ānanda, who had been the great attendant and right-hand disciple of the Blessed One.

Only then did Venerable Mahākassapa select Venerable Ānanda, making the Sangha number 500. After being selected, Venerable Ānanda strived in the Dhamma to become an Arahat and enter the council, and he attained Arahatship just before the council began.

Venerable Mahākassapa, having selected 500 Sangha members, chose the city of Rājagaha as the place for the council. The Sangha members for the council were to observe the rains retreat (vassa) in Rājagaha. The other Sangha members were to observe the vassa in other cities and villages. After the Sangha members observed the vassa in Rājagaha, eight Arahats were selected and sent to King Ajātasattu. They sent a request for the king to be the sponsor, providing the four requisites, and to provide assistance with his royal power for the great council.

King Ajātasattu joyfully accepted the request of the venerable Arahats. Then, for the holding of the council, he had a large pavilion built at the Sattapaṇṇi cave on the slope of the Vebhāra mountain.

Venerable Mahākassapa and the 500 Sangha members, three months after the Lord Buddha's Parinibbāna, on the full moon day of Wagaung in the 148th year of the Mahāsakkarāj era (also called the 4th month of the rains retreat), convened and held the council.

At the council, Venerable Mahākassapa served as the First Pucchaka (Questioner) of the First Saṅgāyana.

For the Vinaya Piṭaka, Venerable Upāli, who had been designated as the foremost in Vinaya by the Lord Buddha, served as the Visajjaka (Responder) and answered the questions.

Venerable Ānanda had personally heard all the Piṭakas without exception. However, out of respect for Venerable Upāli's designation as the foremost in Vinaya, he had Venerable Upāli serve as the Visajjaka. Afterwards, the Venerable Ānanda served as the Visajjaka for the Sutta Piṭaka and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka teachings.

In this way, after the questions and answers were completed, the 500 Sangha members collectively recited and chanted them. This first council took seven months to complete.

Buddhists began counting the Sāsana era from that year. Buddhist scholars have noted the start of the Buddhist Era as 487 B.C. or 485 B.C. In Sri Lanka, 544 B.C. is established as the year.

 

The Second Council

In the 100th year of the Sāsana, 387 B.C., the Vajjiputtaka monks of Vesāli began to practice the ten points (dasavatthūni) that were not in accordance with the Vinaya. (These 10 points have been mentioned above.)

At that time, the Dhamma-holding elders, wishing to dispel the Vinaya revisions of the Adhamma-holding monks and to discipline the Dhamma-holding monks, planned to hold another council.

For this council, the disciples of Venerable Ānanda, the 180-year-old Venerable Revata, Venerable Sabbakāmī, Venerable Sāḷha, Venerable Khujjasobhita, Venerable Mahā Yasa, and Venerable Sambhūta, as well as the saddhivihārika disciple of Venerable Anuruddha, Venerable Visabhāgamika, and Venerable Sumana, took the lead. Among them, some elders had met the Lord Buddha.

From among the elders mentioned above, with Venerable Mahā Yasa as the leader, 700 Arahats convened the Second Council for a period of eight months at the Vālikārāma monastery in the city of Vesāli. King Kālāsoka of Vesāli served as the Sāsana sponsor, providing the four requisites and assisting with his royal power.

 

The Third Council

During the reign of King Asoka (Siri Dhammāsoka) of Pāṭaliputta, the Buddhist Sāsana was flourishing and developing. Although King Asoka was not a Buddhist in his early life, he later became one. After becoming a Buddhist, King Asoka greatly promoted the Buddhist Sāsana. As a result, the number of Sāsana functionaries, both male monks and female nuns, greatly increased.

Taking advantage of this situation, heretics from outside the Sāsana entered the Buddhist order and became monks. These heretics were not individuals who entered with faith in Buddhism. They also did not study the Dhamma of the Sāsana. These pseudo-monks and pseudo-nuns preached doctrines unrelated to the Buddha's Dhamma as if they were the Buddha's Dhamma. They inserted their own doctrines into the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha's Dhamma was no longer pure.

Some pseudo-monks worshipped fire. They performed incantations. They worshipped the sun. They performed incantations. Under the guise of Buddhist monks, they worshipped and paid homage to external religious practices.

The true and correct Sangha did not associate with these pseudo-monks. They did not perform Sangha acts such as Uposatha and Pavāraṇā with them.

The Sangha residing at the Asokārāma monastery experienced this doctrinal division for seven years. In various regions of Asoka's empire, such impurity in the Sāsana and confusion of doctrines were widespread. King Asoka planned to purify the impure and corrupted Buddhist Sāsana and make it a pure Sāsana.

King Asoka questioned the pseudo-monks and pseudo-nuns who had entered the Buddhist order regarding their doctrines. The pseudo-nuns could not answer the true and genuine teachings of the Buddha. They mixed and answered with doctrines outside the Buddha's teachings as if they were the Buddha's teachings.

After King Asoka examined them in this way, he disrobed 60,000 pseudo-monks who could not answer the true Buddha's doctrine and had them leave the order. King Asoka expelled them from the Asokārāma monastery. After King Asoka took action to purify the Sāsana, a group of 1,000 Arahats, with Venerable Mahā Moggalliputtatissa presiding, had to hold the Third Council for the purification of the Buddha's Dhamma.

The Third Council was held starting from the month of Nayon in the 235th year of the Sāsana (252 B.C.) and was completed after nine months. The sponsor of this great Third Council was the great King Asoka himself.

 

The Fourth Council

Before the Fourth Council, during the two reigns of King Vaṭṭagāmaṇi on the island of Sri Lanka, a great famine caused by the Brahmin Tissa occurred among the Tamil people. Because of the famine, the king had to leave his throne and go into hiding. During that time, due to a lack of rain, the crops failed, and the entire island faced a great famine and hardship.

The venerable Sangha, being without food, could not recite the Buddha's Piṭaka teachings. Until that time, the Sangha had preserved the Buddha's Dhamma teachings only through oral tradition. When they faced such a famine, the monks, fearing illness, began to suffer from various diseases. However, they had to strive to recite and preserve the Piṭakas so that they would not be forgotten.

Some venerable monks, due to starvation, passed away. The monks who survived without dying had to preserve the Piṭakas by memorizing them orally. This arduous preservation had to be done for 12 long years. During those years, King Vaṭṭagāmaṇi was able to defeat the threat of the rebels and ascend the throne for a second time.

At that time, the monks who had memorized the three Piṭakas orally realized the great responsibility of transmitting them by memory. They thought that if they faced such calamities again and were unable to recite them, the Buddha's teachings could disappear. Therefore, they felt that they would only be at ease if the teachings were recorded in writing on palm leaves.

Therefore, the Arahat Sangha of Sri Lanka decided to hold a council to record the Piṭakas in writing on palm leaves. After this decision, under the leadership of Venerable Mahādhammarakkhita, 500 Arahats convened the Fourth Council in the 450th year of the Sāsana at the Āloka Cave in the Malaya country. The Dhamma teachings of the Piṭakas were inscribed on palm leaves.

 

The Fifth Council

King Mindon, who ruled the kingdom of Myanmar, founded the city of Mandalay Ratanapura in the year 1221 of the Burmese Era. King Mindon established many meritorious works in the new capital, including the Kuthodaw Pagoda and the Atumashi Monastery. He also placed a new hti (umbrella) on the Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon.

In the month of Tabaung, 1222, King Mindon had the three Piṭakas of the Pāli canon inscribed on palm leaves. Not being satisfied with just that, and with the desire for the long-term preservation of the Piṭakas, he conceived the desire to inscribe the Piṭakas on stone, something that the ancient Sāsana-sponsoring kings had not done.

Therefore, he ordered stone slabs from the Sagyin hills and undertook the project of inscribing the Piṭakas on stone. For the authenticity and purity of the Piṭakas, he entrusted the responsibility to the following great venerable teachers:

1. The Dakkhiṇārāma Sayadaw, who held the title "Jāgarābhivaṃsa Tipiṭaka Dhajamahādhammarājādhirājaguru" and was the teacher of the chief queen, Zabu Mahe.
2. The Sayadaw who held the title "Narindābhidhaja Siri Saddhammajotikāpāladdhaja Rājaguru," the teacher of the second queen.
3. The Sayadaw who held the title "Sumaṅgalasāmi Siri Pavara Maṇidhaja Mahādhammarājādhi Rājaguru."

From the lay side, the governors of Theinpyat, Yaw, and Maingkaing were appointed to supervise.

King Mindon's project of inscribing on stone was successfully completed on the 14th day of the waxing moon of Kason, in the year 1230. In recording the Piṭakas as stone inscriptions:

1.      The five books of the Vinaya Pāli canon.... 111 slabs

2.      The Abhidhamma Pāli canon.................... 208 slabs

3.      The Sutta Pāli canon.................................. 410 slabs

The total number of stone slabs is 729.

King Mindon, following the tradition of ancient kings like Ajātasattu, Kālāsoka, Siridhammāsoka, and Vaṭṭagāmaṇi, once again felt the desire to hold a council where the Piṭakas would be recited orally. Regarding this matter, he consulted with the Thathanabaing (head of the Sangha) and other venerable teachers in the royal city and decided to hold a council. Afterwards, he appointed the Dakkhiṇārāma Sayadaw, the Thibin Sayadaw, and the Thidaw Myin Wut Sayadaw as leaders, invited 2,400 Sangha members to the royal palace, and on the 11th day of the waxing moon of Tagu, in the Burmese Era 1233, Buddhist Era 2415, and Christian Era 1871, he convened the Fifth Council.

At this council, the Piṭakas were recited orally, and it was completed after 5 months and 3 days.

 

The Sixth Council

In the Burmese Era of 1247, the nation of Myanmar fell under the rule of the British colonialists. The Burmese people struggled in various ways to escape from British rule. Not only laypeople, but also venerable monks of the Buddhist Sāsana, preached and participated in the independence movement. They formed associations and strove for the nation, language, and religion. At that time, many patriotic associations emerged.

The venerable Sangha also formed an association and strove for the propagation of the Sāsana. Among these organizations, the one called "Saṅgha Sāmaggi" was a powerful organization. The monks from the Saṅgha Sāmaggi association had been urging for the holding of a Sixth Council since around the year 1920. However, the British government did not pay the slightest attention to the matter of holding a council. Thus, in 1948, Myanmar gained its independence.

At that time, the great venerable teachers of Myanmar became enthusiastic about holding a Sixth Council. The existing Piṭakas, through successive copying and printing, had accumulated errors in punctuation, paragraphs, letters, and words. If the punctuation and paragraphs are incorrect, and the letters are wrong, the meaning can also be distorted. If the meaning is distorted, the Pariyatti teachings can be destroyed.

Therefore, for the purification of the Pariyatti teachings, it was decided to hold a Sixth Council. For this great council, the President of the Union of Myanmar, U Ba U, took on the role of the Sāsana sponsor. The Prime Minister of the government, U Nu, took on the responsibility of providing extensive assistance with state power.

The State Buddhist Sāsana Organization, led by the Thado Thiri Thudhamma title-holding Abhidhaja Mahāraṭṭhaguru Sayadaw, took responsibility for supporting and worshipping with the four requisites on behalf of the citizens.

The Prime Minister's wife, Daw Mya Yi, leading the women, also enthusiastically participated in the veyyāvacca (service) activities of the council, donating their efforts.

After being fully prepared from all sides, under the leadership of the Nyaung Yan Sayadaw of Mandalay, the Abhidhaja Mahāraṭṭhaguru Baddanta Revata, 2,500 Sangha members, at the Mahāpāsāna Cave on the Kaba Aye grounds in Yangon—

• Buddhist Era 2498,
• Christian Era 1954, May (17)th,
• Burmese Era 1316, full moon of Kason (15)th day, convened the Sixth Council.

To the Sixth Council, 144 Theravada monks from Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Sri Lanka, and 2,473 monks from Myanmar, chanted for 245 days. To this council, Mahayana monks from non-Theravada countries such as Japan, Tibet, Vietnam, Korea, the island of Java, the island of Malaya, and the state of Sikkim also attended as observers and honored guests.

At this great council, the role of the Sixth Saṅgīti Pucchaka (Questioner) was taken by the Aggamahāpaṇḍita Mahāsi Sayadaw Baddanta Sobhana, and the role of the Sixth Saṅgīti Visajjaka (Responder) was taken by the Tipiṭakadhara Dhammabhaṇḍāgārika Aggamahāpaṇḍita Abhidhaja Mahāraṭṭhaguru Baddanta Vicittasārābhivaṃsa.

Afterward, the task of purification by inscribing the Piṭaka teachings on metal plates was undertaken.

This Sixth Council was concluded on the full moon day of Kason, in the 2500th year of the Sāsana, Burmese Era 1318, Christian Era 1956, May 24th.

 

Chapter (4)

The Theravada Piṭaka

What Theravada is

The meaning of Theravada is explained in the "Buddhasāsanā Vohāra Abhidhān" dictionary, page 274, as— "The word of the Buddha that must be preserved and maintained so that it is not lost through the succession of elders."

"The doctrine that follows the Pāli canon, which has been preserved and maintained through successive councils by the elders, starting from Venerable Mahākassapa, without losing its original form."

It is defined as such.

The venerable monks of the Theravada tradition have preserved their Dhamma teachings through oral recitation in the Pāli language and through written records. The collection of these teachings is called the "Piṭaka."

The meaning of "Piṭaka" is "basket." People carry things they need to transport in baskets. Similarly, because the teachings of the Buddha were carried down from the time of the Lord Buddha himself through successive generations of noble elders by passing them from hand to hand, they are metaphorically called Piṭaka, like a basket.

The Piṭakas preserved by the followers of Theravada Buddhism are:

(1)   Vinaya Piṭaka,

(2)   Sutta Piṭaka,

(3)   Abhidhamma Piṭaka—

There are three types. The collection of all three is called the "Tipiṭaka" (Three Baskets).

 

(1) The Vinaya Piṭaka

These are the rules of conduct prescribed for male monks and female nuns. This Vinaya Piṭaka is further divided into 5 books:

(a)   Pārājika Pāli: Contains 49 sikkhāpadas (training rules) intended for monks.

(b)  Pācittiya Pāli: Contains 178 sikkhāpadas intended for monks and 311 sikkhāpadas intended for bhikkhunīs.

(c)   Mahāvagga Pāli: Explains the rules of conduct and procedures that the Sangha must follow in 10 chapters.

(d)  Cūḷavagga Pāli: Explains the regulations concerning the Sangha community in 12 chapters.

(e)   Parivāra Pāli: A summary compilation for those who have memorized the Vinaya sikkhāpadas.

 

(2) The Sutta Piṭaka

These are the various Dhamma talks and sermons that the Lord Buddha preached, starting from his very first sermon until his final exhortation just before his Parinibbāna, spanning a period of 45 years.

This Sutta Piṭaka is organized into 5 collections (Nikāyas). They are:

(a)   Dīgha Nikāya

(b)  Majjhima Nikāya

(c)   Saṃyutta Nikāya

(d)  Aṅguttara Nikāya

(e)   Khuddaka Nikāya

 

(a) Dīgha Nikāya: Because it consists of long suttas, it is called the Dīgha Nikāya. This Dīgha Nikāya contains:

(1) Sīlakkhandha-vagga, 13 suttas

(2) Mahā-vagga, 10 suttas

(3) Pāthika-vagga, 11 suttas

(b) Majjhima Nikāya: Because it consists of suttas of middle length, not too long and not too short, it is called the Majjhima Nikāya. This Majjhima Nikāya contains:

(1) Mūlapaṇṇāsa, 50 suttas

(2) Majjhimapaṇṇāsa, 50 suttas

(3) Uparipaṇṇāsa, 52 suttas

(c) Saṃyutta Nikāya: Suttas that share a common theme are collected together and are called the Saṃyutta Nikāya. This Saṃyutta Nikāya contains:

(1) Sagāthā-vagga, 11 saṃyuttas

(2) Nidāna-vagga, 10 saṃyuttas

(3) Khandha-vagga, 13 saṃyuttas

(4) Saḷāyatana-vagga, 12 saṃyuttas

(5) Mahā-vagga, 12 saṃyuttas

(d) Aṅguttara Nikāya: Organized into 11 sections (nipātas) from the Eka-nipāta (Book of Ones) to the Ekādasaka-nipāta (Book of Elevens), with a total of 9,557 suttas.

(e) Khuddaka Nikāya: Refers to the collection of scriptures that are supplementary to the previous four nikāyas.

This Khuddaka Nikāya contains the following books:

(1)   Khuddakapāṭha: Contains 9 short texts.

(2)   Dhammapada: 26 chapters, 423 verses.

(3)   Udāna: Inspired utterances of the Buddha. 8 chapters and 82 udānas.

(4)   Itivuttaka: 4 nipātas, 120 suttas.

(5)   Suttanipāta: A collection of short suttas. 5 chapters, 54 suttas, and 61 questions.

(6)   Vimānavatthu: Describes the celestial mansions of devas. 7 chapters, 83 stories.

(7)   Petavatthu: Describes the suffering in the ghost realm. 4 chapters, 50 stories.

(8)   Theragāthā: Verses of the elder monks. 107 elders' sayings are organized into 21 nipātas.

(9)   Therīgāthā: Verses of the elder nuns. 73 nuns' statements are organized into 16 nipātas.

(10) Jātaka: Describes the previous lives of the Buddha. A small section with 22 nipātas, 547 Jātaka stories.

(11) Mahāniddesa: Further explanation of the Pāli of the Aṭṭhaka-vagga of the Suttanipāta.

(12) Cūḷaniddesa: Further elaboration on the last 3 vaggas of the Suttanipāta.

(13) Paṭisambhidāmagga: Analysis and explanation of the foundational points of the Dhamma. It has 3 great sections and many subsections.

(14) Apadāna: Describes the meritorious deeds of individuals. It describes the lives of 550 elder monks in 55 sections. Additionally, it describes the lives of 40 elder nuns in 4 sections, and continues with the Buddhāpadāna and Paccekabuddhāpadāna.

(15) Buddhavaṃsa: Describes the life stories of the Buddhas in chronological order. It also includes the Buddhapakiṇṇaka section and the Dhātubhājanīya Kathā.

(16) Cariyāpiṭaka: Describes the lives in which the Bodhisattva fulfilled the pāramīs. It contains only 35 of the Buddha's previous lives.

 

(3) The Abhidhamma Piṭaka

Because it contains profound doctrines and subtle natural principles that surpass the Sutta and Vinaya, it is called the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. This Abhidhamma Piṭaka is divided into 7 books:

(a)    Dhammasaṅgaṇī: Divided into 4 major sections, it enumerates the mental and material phenomena of all living and non-living beings.

(b)    Vibhaṅga: Contains 18 chapters called Vibhaṅga which explain and analyze the phenomena of the Dhamma.

(c)    Dhātukathā: Expounds extensively on the ultimate realities (paramattha-dhammas) divided into 14 chapters and 4 methods.

(d)    Puggalapaññatti: Describes types of individuals from 1 to 10 in 10 major chapters, following the Niddesa.

(e)    Kathāvatthu: Compiles and presents the tenets of the various Buddhist sects. It compares 500 suttas from the Theravada with 500 suttas from other sects in 23 chapters.

(f)     Yamaka: Explains how Abhidhamma concepts occur, using 10 pairs (yamakas): Mūla (root), Khandha (aggregate), Āyatana (sense-base), Dhātu (element), Sacca (truth), Saṅkhāra (formation), Anusaya (latent tendency), Citta (consciousness), Dhamma, and Indriya (faculty).

(g)    Paṭṭhāna: Pervaded by the 6 Paṭṭhānas, including the Duka-paṭṭhāna, resulting in 24 Paṭṭhānas. Each Paṭṭhāna is ranked by 7 vāras.

In addition to the Piṭaka texts mentioned above, there are other Pāli scriptures. These are the post-Piṭaka texts, the Pāli scriptures that precede the commentaries. These scriptures are found as follows:

(1)   Nettipakaraṇa: Clarifies the terms and meanings related to the Dhamma.

(2)   Peṭakopadesa: Compiles and presents selected points from the three Piṭakas.

(3)   Milindapañhā: Thoroughly discusses and presents practices like sati (mindfulness), samādhi (concentration), paññā (wisdom), and phenomena like phassa (contact) and vedanā (feeling), which are included in the three Piṭakas.

 

Checking the Buddhist Scriptures

The followers of Theravada Buddhism inscribed the three Piṭakas, the collections of teachings preached by the Buddha, on palm leaves during the Fourth Council.

At the Fifth Council, they recorded them in writing on stone slabs.

At the Sixth Council, they recorded them in writing on metal plates. The records from the Sixth Council were printed in the following volumes, called the "Sixth Edition":

Scripture Name	Number of Books	Number of Volumes
Vinaya	5	5
Dīgha Nikāya	3	3
Majjhima Nikāya	3	3
Saṃyutta Nikāya	5	3
Aṅguttara Nikāya	11	3
Khuddaka Nikāya	19	11
Abhidhamma	7	12
Total	53	40

At the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Councils, when recorded on palm leaves, stone slabs, and metal plates, the counts were found to be as follows:

• Number of palm leaves: 6,345 leaves
• Number of stone slabs: 729 slabs
• Number of books (volumes): 40 volumes
• Number of pages: 6,547 pages
• Number of folios: 13,094 folios
• Number of lines of text: 404,070 lines

The total number of characters in the three Piṭakas is 11,021,750 (eleven million, twenty-one thousand, seven hundred and fifty).

Chapter (5)

The Theravada Dhamma Gems

Buddhism Among Religions

Throughout world history, human beings have worshipped a great many religions. The origins of religion are religious tenets that arose according to human beliefs. Later, individuals who founded religions emerged. These individuals who preached the religious Dhamma became religious founders.

Those who founded and preached religions were not ordinary individuals. They were people who studied nature and discovered new experiences and new knowledge. They refuted the beliefs prevalent in their surroundings with new knowledge and preached.

Their sermons were recorded by later generations. These great records have remained as the sacred texts of those religions.

In studying religions, some religious founders preached by connecting their new Dhamma with ancient folk culture. They founded their religions based on traditional culture. These religions are:

(1)   Hinduism

(2)   Christianity

(3)   Islam, and so on.

The three major religions mentioned above, which are prominent in the world, are religions based on the concept of an eternal god that is part of ancient culture. The eternal god is the lord of infinite power who created the entire universe and all living and non-living things. He is the lord of all-knowing wisdom. He is also the lord of compassion.

He exists eternally throughout the infinite universe. He is a lord of power who has no beginning and no end.

Whether human, animal, or any other thing, everything comes into being and ceases to be only according to the will of the eternal god. Even before the universe existed, the eternal god already existed. Even if the great universe is destroyed, the eternal god will not be destroyed. He will continue to exist. This is the nature of the eternal god.

The religion that denies the eternal god and reveals the natural law is Buddhism.
In Buddhism:

• It denies an eternal god.
• It does not accept an eternal soul (attā).
• There is no savior.
• It does not establish a creator.

The one who preached a new Dhamma, that one creates oneself, and established a religion was Gautama Buddha. The Buddha did not accept traditional folk beliefs or speculative doctrines. He primarily based his teachings on the fundamental human condition and preached the Dhamma.

The Lord Buddha preached his new Dhamma for 45 years throughout the Kosala and Magadha kingdoms and the northern region of the Ganges river valley. For the propagation of his religion, he established the order of the Sangha and was able to carry out his work successfully.

Becoming a Buddhist

There are no extensive rules to become a Buddhist. In the world of Buddhism, there are three objects of worship. They are:

(1)   To take refuge in the Buddha as the one to be worshipped,

(2)   To take refuge in the Buddha's Dhamma as the one to be worshipped,

(3)   To take refuge in the Buddha's Sangha community as the one to be worshipped.

If one accepts and has faith in these three, one becomes a Buddhist. These three are called the Three Refuges by Buddhists.

 

Buddhist Sīla

For a Buddhist, there are 5 precepts of conduct to be followed and practiced. They are:

(1)   To refrain from taking the life of others.

(2)   To refrain from taking the property of others.

(3)   To refrain from sexual misconduct.

(4)   To refrain from speaking falsehoods.

(5)   To refrain from consuming intoxicating substances.

On major holy days, Buddhists observe and practice the 8 precepts. There are also other precepts of conduct. The Buddha's Dhamma also contains many teachings that are of direct benefit to human beings. The Buddha explicitly preached that his Dhamma would bring immediate peace, would be beneficial at all times, and had the power to be tested and proven.

During the time of the Buddha, there were many sect leaders who were establishing their religions. These leaders were proclaiming and shouting that only their teachings were true. The people of India were confused among these doctrines. There were those who could not distinguish which doctrine was right and which was wrong. Among them were the Kalama princes of Kesaputta.

 

The Kalama Sutta as a Guide

The Kalama princes of Kesaputta submitted the following to the Lord Buddha:
"Blessed One, the Brahmin monks and sect leaders who come to Kesaputta praise only their own doctrines and condemn and disparage the doctrines of others. We are unable to distinguish which doctrine is true and have become doubtful about these doctrines. Please teach us the way to find the true doctrine."

At that time, the Lord Buddha preached the following 10 points as a guide regarding doctrines:
"O Kalama princes, do not accept a doctrine—

(1)   just because it has been passed down through tradition.

(2)   just because it is an ancient doctrine.

(3)   just because it is rumored to be so.

(4)   just because it is in accordance with the scriptures you have studied.

(5)   just because it seems logical and you have contemplated it.

(6)   just because you have deduced it based on a method, thinking

 

Kalama Sutta: Finding True Doctrine

The Exemplary Kalama Sutta

The Kalama princes of Kesamutta village addressed the Lord Buddha thus:

"Venerable Sir, the monks, brahmins, and sectarian teachers who come to the town of Kesamutta praise only their own doctrine and disparage, criticize, and speak ill of other doctrines. We, your disciples, are unable to distinguish which doctrine is true and are filled with doubt about these doctrines. Please, Lord, teach us the way to find the true doctrine."

Then, the Lord Buddha delivered a sermon with ten points to serve as a standard regarding matters of doctrine.

"Oh, Kalama princes, you should not accept a doctrine:

(1)   just because it has been passed down through oral tradition;

(2)   just because it is a traditional belief;

(3)   just because of rumors, such as 'this is said to be so';

(4)   just because it is in accordance with your scriptures;

(5)   just because it fits with your own reasoning and speculation;

(6)   just because it is based on methodical reasoning;

(7)   just because it is consistent with your own reflection and consideration;

(8)   just because it aligns with a doctrine you have already contemplated and accepted;

(9)   just because it is spoken by a person who seems credible;

(10) just because it is the word of a teacher you respect."

Considering these points, the Buddha instructed people to weigh matters on the scale of wisdom to find the truth that can bring about social benefit. After teaching these ten criteria for examining a doctrine, the Buddha continued to explain the teachings that must be tested and experienced for oneself.

"Oh, Kalama princes, when you yourselves know that 'these things are unwholesome, these things are blameworthy, these things are censured by the wise, and undertaking these things leads to harm and suffering,' then you should abandon them."

Here, we must study the concepts of wholesome and unwholesome deeds. The way different ideologies define what is unwholesome is not the same. In the Buddha's teachings, unwholesome actions and bad conduct are identified as follows.

 

10 Types of Bad Conduct

In the Buddha's teachings, ten types of bad conduct are prohibited. These ten are:

(1)   Three types of bad conduct performed with the body,

(2)   Four types of bad conduct performed with speech,

(3)   Three types of bad conduct performed with the mind.

 

These ten types of bad conduct are further explained as follows:

(1) The three types of bad conduct performed with the body are:

(a) Taking the life of another being.

(b) Stealing the property of another.

(c) Engaging in sexual misconduct.

 

(2) The four types of bad conduct performed with speech are:

(a) Speaking falsehoods and lies.

(b) Speaking slanderous words that cause division among friends.

(c) Speaking words that are of no benefit to oneself or others.

(d) Speaking harsh words.

(3) The three types of bad conduct performed with the mind are:

(a) Coveting the property of another with unrighteous intent.

(b) Having malevolent thoughts to destroy the property and well-being of another.

(c) Holding wrong views.

In the Buddha's teachings, one who refrains from these unwholesome actions is said to possess good conduct and good character.

The Blessings for People to Practice

In the Buddha's teachings, there is a discourse that best explains the principles of social life. This is the Maṅgala Sutta (Sutta of Blessings). The Maṅgala Sutta points out what should be done and what should be avoided for a complete human life. In summary, the discourse contains 38 points. They are as follows:

(1)   Not associating with fools.

(2)   Associating with the wise.

(3)   Paying homage to those worthy of homage.

(4)   Living in a suitable locality.

(5)   Having done good deeds in the past.

(6)   Setting oneself on the right course.

(7)   Having much learning and knowledge.

(8)   Being skilled in blameless arts, such as mechanics and crafts.

(9)   Learning the discipline of a civilized conduct.

(10) Speaking pleasant words.

(11) Attending to one's parents.

(12) Cherishing and supporting one's wife and children.

(13) Engaging in work that harms no one.

(14) Giving and donating.

(15) Practicing virtuous conduct.

(16) Supporting one's relatives as much as possible.

(17) Engaging in blameless work.

(18) Mentally avoiding evil deeds.

(19) Avoiding evil deeds in body and speech.

(20) Abstaining from intoxicants and drugs.

(21) Not being heedless in wholesome deeds.

(22) Showing respect to those worthy of respect.

(23) Being humble and not arrogant.

(24) Being content with what one has.

(25) Being grateful to one's benefactors.

(26) Listening to the Dhamma at the proper time.

(27) Being patient.

(28) Being easy to admonish.

(29) Seeing the noble Sangha.

(30) Discussing the Dhamma at a suitable time.

(31) Practicing austerity.

(32) Having noble conduct.

(33) Realizing the Four Noble Truths.

(34) Experiencing the peace of Nibbāna.

(35) Being able to withstand the ways of the world (lokadhamma).

(36) Being free from sorrow and worry.

(37) Being free from intense greed.

(38) Being fearless.

 

Discourse on Prosperity

Once humans come into existence, the essential needs of human life inevitably arise. Four things are the primary needs of human life. They are:

(1)   Food and drink.

(2)   Clothing.

(3)   Shelter.

(4)   Mental peace.

Throughout history, humans have had to strive and struggle to fulfill these four needs. As long as human history exists, they will have to continue striving in various ways. Only through such striving will life's needs be met. To fulfill these needs, wealth must be sought. Only when wealth is abundant can the four needs be easily met.

The Buddha also taught discourses for social well-being and economic prosperity. He taught from all angles with his omniscient wisdom.

Once, when the Buddha was residing in a town called Pakkarapatta, a layman named Byagghapajja asked for teachings on how to prosper in social life. The Lord then taught the four conditions for worldly welfare (sampadā).

(1)   Uṭṭhāna-sampadā = To be endowed with diligence, perseverance, and energy, without laziness.

(2)   Ārakkha-sampadā = To be endowed with the skill to expertly guard and preserve the wealth one has acquired.

(3)   Kalyāṇamittatā-sampadā = To be endowed with good friends who can be relied upon and trusted.

(4)   Samajīvitā-sampadā = To be endowed with the ability to live a balanced life, earning and spending systematically.

Furthermore, to achieve prosperity, success, and fame, it is necessary to be endowed with the four "wheels" called Sampatti Cakka.

(1)   Patirūpa-desa-vāsa = To settle and live in a place where one can succeed and progress in economic and religious matters.

(2)   Sappurisa-upanissaya = To have good and wise friends and associates.

(3)   Atta-sammā-paṇidhi = To train oneself to become a good and virtuous person.

(4)   Pubbe-ca-kata-puññatā = To have performed and accumulated good deeds in previous lives and earlier in this life.

A person who wishes to achieve all-round development in worldly and spiritual matters should follow and practice the above teachings. The principles for prosperity mentioned in this discourse are laws that can surely lead to prosperity in this very life. They are also practical Dhamma principles.

They are not like some mantra or magical incantation that promises, "If you chant this, you will become very rich." They are practical guiding principles that state, "Only if you truly work, will you truly prosper."

People can acquire life and its splendors by striving in accordance with the four Sampadā principles. It is also necessary to know how to maintain the life circumstances one has acquired without letting them decline. If one does not know how to live properly, the acquired life's splendors will be destroyed.

The causes for the decline and destruction of life's splendors are described as follows:

(1)   Habitual use of intoxicants such as alcohol and drugs.

(2)   Habitual wandering at inappropriate times.

(3)   Habitual visiting and watching of entertainment shows.

(4)   Having a passion for gambling and the like.

(5)   Associating with bad companions.

(6)   Habitual laziness.

In Buddhist literature, the Sigalovada Sutta is a discourse that explains various social guidelines for resolving social suffering and for harmonious interaction between social classes. The Buddha's teachings are practical Dhamma discourses that can bring tangible benefits for the four essential needs of human beings.

Among the Buddha's teachings, there is one discourse that summarizes the essence. That discourse is:

(1)   Do no evil.

(2)   Do good.

(3)   Purify your mind.

(4)   This is the summary of the Lord Buddha's Dhamma teachings.

 

The Buddha's Philosophical Teachings

In his search for truth, the Lord Buddha approached and investigated the nature of phenomena. He analyzed the nature of the world in a fundamental way. Then he saw four kinds of phenomena that truly exist in the nature of the world.

(1)   The mental phenomenon that knows the object (citta).

(2)   The mental concomitant phenomenon that arises depending on the mind (cetasika).

(3)   The physical phenomenon that is subject to change and flux (rūpa).

(4)   The phenomenon of Nibbāna, which is liberation from attachments.

The four phenomena mentioned above are phenomena that truly exist. Among these four existing things, the phenomenon called Nibbāna is an element of nature that the Buddha himself discovered. The Nibbāna element is also an element of nature that provides eternal peace to human beings. It is also the supreme element for Buddhists. Every Buddhist strives diligently to attain the essential nature of the Nibbāna element.

The Lord Buddha taught various discourses to realize and experience the nature of the Nibbāna element. In striving to realize the Nibbāna element, he first taught what must be avoided.

• One cannot know the Nibbāna element by intensely pursuing and indulging in sensual pleasures.
• One also cannot know the Nibbāna element by practicing extreme self-mortification and enduring great hardship.

This is true. The nature of the Nibbāna element can only be known with the eye of wisdom. By tormenting the body, one cannot get on the path of wisdom.

The Lord Buddha himself practiced tormenting his body for six years. He believed that he would attain right view if he endured hardship. At that time, the traditional practices in India were mostly ascetic practices that involved tormenting the body.

What the Bodhisattva (the future Buddha) wanted was the peace of life. To attain peace, he had to practice tormenting his body. By tormenting his body, he only got physical suffering. He did not get the peace of life. Therefore, he let go of the traditional practices and sought the peace of life through the Middle Way called Majjhimā Paṭipadā. Only then did he discover the peaceful Nibbāna element. The Lord Buddha saw:

(1)   The truth of suffering.

(2)   The truth of the cause of suffering.

(3)   The truth of the cessation of suffering.

(4)   The truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.

He saw this with his own wisdom. These four are called the Four Noble Truths. The meaning of these four is as follows:

(1)   The Truth of Suffering: Being conceived, growing old, getting sick, dying, being united with what one dislikes, being separated from what one likes, not getting what one desires—in short, the five aggregates of clinging, which are the objects of attachment (body and mind), are suffering.

(2)   The Truth of the Cause of Suffering: Intense craving (or taṇhā) tends to lead to new existence. This craving causes the arising of attachment to sensual pleasures, attachment to existence, and attachment to non-existence. These attachments are the causes of suffering.

(3)   The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering: There is a state free from attachment, a state of cessation, a state free from the grip of craving, which is Nibbāna. This phenomenon called Nibbāna is the truth of the cessation of suffering and true peace.

(4)   The Truth of the Path to the Cessation of Suffering: To realize the nature of the Nibbāna element, there are eight basic principles. These eight are called the Majjhimā Paṭipadā (Middle Way). They are also called the Eightfold Path (Maggaṅga).

 

The Noble Eightfold Path

(1)  Sammā-diṭṭhi: This is called right view or right understanding. To understand the truth of suffering, to understand the truth of the origin of suffering (samudaya), to understand the truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha), and to understand the practice leading to the cessation of suffering (Nibbāna).

(2)  Sammā-saṅkappa: This is called right intention or right thought. Intention of renunciation from sensual attachment, intention for the well-being and happiness of others, intention for the welfare of all beings with compassion.

(3)  Sammā-vācā: This is called right speech. Refraining from speaking falsehoods, slander, harsh and abusive language, and frivolous and useless chatter.

(4)  Sammā-kammanta: This is called right action. Refraining from taking life, stealing, and engaging in sexual misconduct with material sensual objects.

(5)  Sammā-ājīva: This is called right livelihood. When engaging in a livelihood, refraining from the four unwholesome verbal actions and the three unwholesome bodily actions.

(6)  Sammā-vāyāma: This is called right effort. Striving to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states, striving to abandon arisen unwholesome states, striving to arouse unarisen wholesome states, and striving to maintain and increase arisen wholesome states.

(7)  Sammā-sati: This is called right mindfulness. Repeatedly observing and being mindful of the nature of body, feelings, mind, and mental objects.

(8)  Sammā-samādhi: This is called right concentration.

Keeping the mind steadily concentrated while contemplating the nature of mind and matter.

When categorizing the above eight noble path factors into groups:

• Sammā-diṭṭhi and Sammā-saṅkappa are included in the "Wisdom Group" (Paññā-maggaṅga).
• Sammā-vācā, Sammā-kammanta, and Sammā-ājīva are included in the "Morality Group" (Sīla-maggaṅga).
• Sammā-vāyāma, Sammā-sati, and Sammā-samādhi are included in the "Concentration Group" (Samādhi-maggaṅga).

These eight path factors are the principles that enable one to realize the truth called Sacca. They are the causal principles for seeing the Nibbāna element. One who sees and knows the nature of the Nibbāna element is said to have attained the supreme Dhamma of Buddhism.

The Buddha first taught the Four Noble Truths in the Deer Park at Isipatana. The name of the discourse is the "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta." In that sutta, there are also points that are difficult to interpret. The interpretations and views can also differ.

This is not only in this sutta. In other discourses taught by the Buddha, one finds profound, difficult, and subtle points that require interpretation. It is not surprising that it is difficult to interpret the intended meaning of the vocabulary of discourses taught about 2,600 years ago from a modern perspective. Moreover, the language in which the Buddha taught was not the Burmese language.

 

The Nature of Nibbāna

The word Nibbāna is a compound term formed by combining the prefix 'ni' and the root 'vāna'. Ni = absence; Vāna = craving/attachment. Thus, it means the absence of craving. The absence of craving itself is the meaning of the Nibbāna element. Buddhists in Myanmar refer to this term using the Pali word "Nibbāna."

The literature explaining the qualities of Nibbāna is very extensive. Nibbāna is exceedingly noble. It is a reality that is eternally stable. It is not something constructed from the four great elements of earth, water, fire, and air. It transcends suffering. It is also the end of suffering. It is not something created by anyone. There is no feeling or sensation (vedanā) that arises based on craving and clinging (upādāna).

In Nibbāna, there is no phenomenon of arising. There is also no phenomenon of ceasing.

There is an inherent eternal peace. The location of Nibbāna cannot be pointed to. At any time, in any place, one can attain the peace of Nibbāna with one's own body and mind. One who has experienced the peace of Nibbāna even once will never again be said to have lost the taste of Nibbāna. They can experience the taste of Nibbāna at any time.

Nibbāna has the characteristic of 'suññatā' (emptiness), meaning it is devoid of a physical substance yet is inherently peaceful. This peace is an eternally existing natural phenomenon. This eternally peaceful nature has no connection whatsoever with an eternal soul (viññāṇa).

Nibbāna is also a timeless phenomenon. It exists without arising. Therefore, Nibbāna is called "the uncreated reality." One who can establish their mind and consciousness on this uncreated reality attains liberation. They become one who sees the peaceful nature of Nibbāna.

In the Buddha's teachings, individuals who can see and know Nibbāna, who can experience its taste, are classified into four types:

(1)   The Sotāpanna (Stream-enterer) level.

(2)   The Sakadāgāmī (Once-returner) level.

(3)   The Anāgāmī (Non-returner) level.

(4)   The Arahant (Worthy One) level.

This four-fold classification is made based on the mental power to abandon the fetters of attachment. All four levels are individuals who can realize Nibbāna. These individuals are called "Ariya Puggala" (Noble Individuals).

 

Chapter 6: Theravada and Myanmar

The Buddha and Myanmar

Some records state that the Lord Buddha visited Myanmar during his lifetime. According to the request of the Arahat Mahathera Gavampati, the Buddha came to the city of Suvaṇṇabhūmi with 500 Arahats. As the Buddha traveled through the sky over the ocean, he saw a sandbank, the size of a resting shelduck, emerging from the water, upon which a male shelduck was perched below a female shelduck. Seeing this event, the Buddha smiled. When asked about the reason, he prophesied, "In the future, on this spot, a great city named Haṃsāvatī will arise."

He also prophesied that the Sāsana (the Buddha's teachings) would flourish in the lands of Suvaṇṇabhūmi and Ukkalāpa. According to this prophecy, Haṃsāvatī, Suvaṇṇabhūmi, and Ukkalāpa became lands where the Sāsana thrived.

Similarly, the Buddha prophesied from Taññakyī Mountain about the future establishment of the great city of Arimaddana, or Pagan, and the flourishing of the Sāsana there. He also journeyed to the regions of Sunāparanta and Aparanta, known as Minbu and La-waing-kyaung-daw-yar. He also left his footprints. Not only that, various chronicles have written and stated that many pagodas and cities in Myanmar came into being according to the Buddha's prophecies. Such writings are literary works based on faith.

It is not only Myanmar that has been associated with the Buddha. Sri Lanka, also known as Sihala, also has a tradition, accepted and believed by Sri Lankan Buddhists, that the Buddha visited the island of Sihala.

Some researchers cite the commentaries (Aṭṭhakathā) to show that the Buddha visited Myanmar. These citations are not without basis. This is because some of the religious monuments within Myanmar are consistent with those scriptures. The reason for this consistency is that the ancient people of Myanmar emulated the events described in the religious scriptures and created them.

To clarify further: Myanmar had contact with the people of India from the early centuries. They accepted Indian culture. Later, Buddhism also arrived. After accepting Buddhism, the people of Myanmar studied the Buddhist literature. They developed deep faith and devotion. Liking the names in the Buddhist literature, they emulated and named places after them.

Later, Buddhists constructed religious monuments based on these names. When these monuments were later cited in chronicles with reference to the scriptures, the idea that the Buddha had visited Myanmar became a point of contention.

Many religious artifacts were created and established according to the words in the scriptures. Chronicles were written. It is from this writing that ambiguities have arisen.

In truth, whether the Buddha came to Myanmar or not is not the main issue. The main point is that the teachings of the Buddha (Dhamma Desanā) arrived. Because the Buddha's teachings are present, the essence of the teachings has been received and is being practiced.

Thus, to know and practice the Dhamma is to have seen and met the Buddha. If one does not accept the teachings of the Buddha, even if the Buddha had come, there would be no special benefit.

The Buddha himself taught the monk Vakkali that if one does not see the essence of the Dhamma, it is not considered as having seen the Buddha, and that only by seeing the Dhamma can one see the Buddha. Now, in the Middle Country (Majjhima Desa) where the Buddha appeared, the Sāsana has weakened and faded. The Sāsana is the teaching of the doctrine. If the teachings disappear, or if people lose faith, the Sāsana will surely disappear.

Thus, because the faith was not passed down and preserved, ancient stupas like Sanchi, Bharhut, and Amaravati have been left isolated as ancient artifacts.

Now, because Myanmar has been able to carry on the tradition, it has been able to stand as a major country where Theravada Buddhism flourishes. It is also the leading nation among the five Theravada countries. From what period did Theravada Buddhism enter Myanmar?

 

The Beginning of the Sāsana with Tapussa and Bhallika

Ancient chronicles state that the first to bring Buddhism to Myanmar were the two brothers Tapussa and Bhallika from the city of Ukkalāpa. This evidence was taken from the Mahāvagga Pāḷi. Originally, Ukkalāpa was not in Burma. It was called the Ukkala country in India. The ancient name of Ukkala country was Asitañjana. It is now called Dhauli. It is located in the Puri district of Orissa state, southwest of Bengal.

In the "Buddhist Geographical Scripture," the following explanation is given regarding Tapussa, Bhallika, and Ukkala:

The name Ukkalāpa in Burma should be understood as having been named by people who migrated from the Ukkala country in India, taking the name of their native land. Later, Ukkala changed to Ukkalāpa. In that scripture, the names of the two brothers Tapussa and Bhallika are written as 'Tapassu' and 'Bhallika'. The original native place of Tapussa and Bhallika was the Ukkala country in India.

The lineage of the merchant brothers were people who had settled in the Lower Burma region of Rāmañña about 100 years before the Buddha appeared. The merchant brothers were traders who traveled between Ukkalāpa in Burma and Ukkala in India. The merchant brothers, from their native Ukkala country, went to the Middle Country to sell their goods. Passing through the Paṇḍu and Lāḷa countries, they reached the Uruvelā forest camp where they met the Lord Buddha.

At that time, the Lord Buddha had not yet established the order of the Sangha. It was the period just after his enlightenment. Therefore, the two brothers could only take the two refuges (in the Buddha and the Dhamma). Then, the Buddha bestowed hair relics. The merchant brothers, after receiving the hair relics, returned from their native Ukkala country to their settlement in the city of Ukkalāpa in Burma. Upon their return to Ukkalāpa, they enshrined the Buddha's hair relics and built and worshipped the Tikuṃ (Shwedagon) Pagoda.

From that time, it can be considered that the Buddhist Sāsana reached Myanmar. According to this conclusion, the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar would be the oldest pagoda in the world. We must accept and record the slogan "The beginning of pagodas is Shwedagon."

 

The Second Arrival of the Sāsana

During the reign of King Asoka, after the Third Buddhist Council, missionary monks were sent to nine regions. Among them, the mission led by the venerable Sona and the venerable Uttara went to Suvaṇṇabhūmi to propagate the Sāsana.

At that time, in Suvaṇṇabhūmi, there were Rakṣasa ogres. The people were facing danger because the ogres were entering and harassing them. The two Arahants were able to protect them from the danger of the ogres, so the people came to rely on them.

The venerable Sona and the venerable Uttara preached the Brahmajāla Sutta to the people. They established them in the refuges and precepts. Due to the preaching of the venerable ones, 60,000 Buddhists were gained. 1,500 men and women entered the Sāsana and became monks and nuns.

Here, in Burmese chronicles and Sāsana histories, the region called Suvaṇṇabhūmi has been written and identified as the city of Thaton, also called Sudhammāpura, in the Mon State. Modern historical researchers, however, have concluded and shown that Suvaṇṇabhūmi refers to the Sumatra peninsula.

The name Sumatra is said to have originated from an Indian merchant named Sumitta who was the first to come and settle on this island, and it was named after him. It is said that in Pali, Sumitta, and in Sanskrit, Sumitra, came to be called Sumatra.

The Sumatra peninsula region itself was called Suvaṇṇabhūmi by the Indians. In ancient times, Indians came to this region to trade. They considered this region as valuable as gold for themselves. Therefore, the region of the Sumatra peninsula was metaphorically called Suvaṇṇabhūmi (Golden Land).

Scholars have accepted that this Suvaṇṇabhūmi, or Golden Land region, included the area around Thaton. When this proposition is further studied, supporting reasons are found.

When the venerable Sona and Uttara arrived for missionary work, the people were suffering from the danger of ogres. In ancient Mon chronicles and in the stone inscriptions of King Dhammazedi, the Thaton region was formerly called Rakkhapura (Land of the water-ogres).

From this evidence, it is known that the Thaton region was dominated by ogres. These so-called ogres can be understood as people of the Negrito ethnicity. According to archaeological studies, it is known that people of the Negrito ethnicity lived throughout the land of Myanmar in the early period.

When the Mon-Khmer ethnic group arrived in the southeastern region of Myanmar, they came into conflict with the indigenous Negrito people. The Mon-Khmers waged wars and conquered the lands. The Negritos had to abandon their lands. They had to move towards the sea. The fact that there is a large island called Bilu Kyun (Ogre Island) near the mouth of the Thanlwin River, near Mawlamyine, is good evidence.

It can be concluded that the time when the venerable Sona and company arrived for missionary work was a time of conflict between the Mon people and the Negrito water-ogres. The fact that the two venerable ones protected them from the danger of the ogres can be understood to mean that it was the Negrito people.

Although in the early days the Mon people and the water-ogre people fought each other, later some Mon and ogres lived together in harmony. It can be said that they lived together peacefully, having converted to and believed in the Buddhist teachings. This is because the Hti-saung Pagoda in Zokthok village, Bilin township, Mon State, was built and worshipped by ogres.

Mon-Burmese chronicles state that the city of Suvaṇṇabhūmi, or Thaton, was founded in the 17th century BCE. However, precise historical evidence has not yet been found.

When the historical era arrived, it was found mentioned in the Geography written by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, concerning Suvaṇṇabhūmi. Ptolemy recorded that along the coast of the Gulf of Martaban, called Besynga, lived short, rough, and sturdy wild people. This ethnic group is the people called ogres in literature. When new ethnic groups arrived, many of this ethnic group moved to the islands in the sea.

Some small groups of ogres who did not want to live among civilized people were left stranded on hills and mountain ranges. For example, in the Burmese chronicle, the ogress Caṇḍamukhī who lived on the Sagaing hills in the story of Mahāsambava and Cūḷasambava, and the ogress named Mavaṇṇa who sold flowers from Mount Popa, were of the ogre lineage who were stranded in Burma.

Considering the points mentioned above, it can be understood that the venerable Sona and Uttara were able to preach and persuade both ethnic groups around Thaton to embrace Buddhism.

 

Theravada and the Archaeological View

When studying the arrival of Buddhism in Myanmar using archaeological methods, it is found that Buddhism was already present in the Pyu era.

Here, it is necessary to briefly study the major ethnic groups that entered and settled in Myanmar. It has already been known from historical research that the Negrito ethnic group had settled in Myanmar. It has also been mentioned above that this group was destroyed by the Mons who entered the southeastern region. That war took place around the 3rd century BCE.

At that time, in the central region of Burma, the Pyu people were attacking and seizing territory from the Negritos. So, when did the Pyu people arrive in Myanmar?

The Pyu people founded the city of Beikthano (Vishnu) in the 1st century CE. By that time, their level of civilization was already high. Since the Pyu were able to build a city-state in the 1st century CE, it can be said that they had already arrived on Burmese soil in an earlier period. The arrival of the Pyu can be estimated to be around the 3rd century BCE.

There is also evidence to support this estimation. The army of the King of Qin severely attacked the Qiang people in 350 BCE. At that time, the Pyu people, who were part of the Lolo group, had to flee to escape the dangers of war.

Among those war refugees, some followed the Salween River. When they reached the western part of Yunnan province, they followed the Taping and Shweli rivers and descended. They settled in the plains of Burma. It can be said that this ethnic group founded the city of Beikthano in the 1st century CE.

The Pyu who founded Beikthano were people who were gentle in their social relations. They even adopted civilized arts from India. The religion that the majority worshipped was Buddhism. It was directly received from India. During the excavation of the ancient city of Beikthano, a seal bearing the inscription "Saṅghasiri" was found. Based on this point, it can be said that Buddhist monks were residing and propagating the Sāsana in the city of Beikthano.

The Sāsana that arrived in Beikthano was a type of Sāsana that flourished in the Andhra region of Southern India. It was a sect of the Sāsana that did not worship images, as concluded by researchers.

Around the 4th century CE, other Pyu people also founded and ruled new city-states. The city of Sri Ksetra near Pyay (Prome), the ancient city of Pinle, known as Maingmaw near Kyaukse, and Halingyi in the Shwebo region became prominent in history.

In the 5th century CE, the city of Beikthano was attacked and destroyed by the Sri Ksetra Pyu.

 

The Theravada of the Sri Ksetra Period

The Pyu people who founded the Sri Ksetra era also worshipped Buddhism. In the Sri Ksetra era, along with Theravada Buddhism, artifacts of Mahayana sect worship have also been found. On the 20 gold plates discovered at Khin Ba's mound in Sri Ksetra, excerpts from the Theravada Tipitaka are found, written in the ancient Telugu-Kannada script of Southern India.

On the throne of a Buddha statue with a jewel, found at Kan Wet Khaung mound, a record written in Sanskrit is found on all four faces. In the ancient city of Sri Ksetra, many other pieces of evidence related to Buddhism have also been found. The majority of the evidence are symbols related to Theravada. Therefore, it is firmly known that the Buddhism of the Sri Ksetra era was Theravada Buddhism.

It can be said that the Sri Ksetra Pyu placed more importance on the Abhidhamma Piṭaka from among the Buddhist teachings. The stanza beginning "Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā" seems to have been the favorite stanza of the Pyu people. This stanza is frequently found in the Pyu territories. The stanza is as follows:

Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā,

tesaṃ hetuṃ tathāgato āha.

Tesañca yo nirodho,

evaṃvādī mahāsamaṇo.

(Translation): "Of all things that arise from a cause, the Tathāgata has told the cause; and also their cessation. Thus teaches the Great Ascetic." (Sixth Council version)

Information about the Buddhist faith of the Sri Ksetra Pyu is also found in Chinese records written around 800 CE. The points related to Buddhism from that record will be extracted and presented.

"The capital city has 12 gates. At each of the four corners of the city, a pagoda is built. The royal palace, where the king resides, has in front of its gate an image of a sitting Buddha, which is over 100 cubits high and has a snow-white color.

When two people are in conflict, the king has them burn incense before the great Buddha statue and reflect on their faults. The two disputants soon reconcile. When dangers and great calamities befall the towns and regions, the king makes a vow before the Buddha statue, burning fragrant incense, promising to rule the people according to the law.

In the Pyu region, there are no less than 100 monasteries. The monasteries have magnificent halls decorated with gold and silver, and painted with bright colors like vermilion. The floors are also painted red and covered with carpets embroidered with flowers. The roofs of the monasteries are tiled with glazed bricks, just like the roof of the royal palace.

Pyu boys and girls, upon reaching the age of 7, have their hair cut and go to a monastery to enter the religious order. When they reach the age of 20, if they no longer follow the Buddha's monastic discipline, they leave the order and let their hair grow long again."

According to the evidence presented above, it is known that the Pyu people built their way of life with Buddhist culture. It can be said that the life of the Pyu people was enveloped by the Buddha's teachings.

The Pyu people used to praise and take pride in their Buddhist religion. When they met people of other ethnicities, they would also praise and speak of Buddhism. They would compose and sing songs of the Buddha's Dhamma.

In the years 800-802 CE, a Pyu cultural and musical troupe went to China. They had to perform in the palace of the Tang emperor. At that performance, they performed with songs of the Buddha's life that praised the virtues of Buddhism.

In summary, the way of life of the Pyu people was the way of life of Theravada Buddhist culture. The Pyu people lived, guided by their way of life under the cool shade of Buddhism.

 

The Arrival of the Bamar

At the time when city-states like Beikthano and Sri Ksetra were founded, the Bamar people had not yet entered Myanmar. The people who would be called Bamar were those who arrived later. When did the Bamar people arrive in Myanmar?

Ancient chronicles state that the Bamar had been present since the 6th century BCE, or even the 9th century BCE. This statement does not refer to the Bamar people. It is a written account of the time when the Sakyan clan from India arrived.

Some researchers, however, state that they arrived only in the 9th century CE. The first to propose this was the English professor, Mr. Luce. Mr. Luce wrote this, citing the Manshu (Book of the Southern Barbarians) written by the Chinese.

He stated that the Bamar entered through the Nanzhao mountain pass in the 9th century CE and settled in the Kyaukse plain. He proclaimed the new historical theory that "the origin of the Bamar is Kyaukse." This theory was widely promoted by his students, so much so that it was widely disseminated in school textbooks and the Encyclopedia Birmanica in later times.

The above theory is not plausible. Those who arrived in the 9th century were only "members of the Min clan." Mr. Luce's theories were skewed because he did not study and distinguish between the "Min clan" and the "Bamar clan."

The members of the group who would be called Bamar can be said to have settled in the plains of Burma as early as the 5th century CE.

The early Bamar, around the 5th century CE, came down in search of clear water and fresh grass due to various reasons. Some reached the Arakan mountain range. They settled in the Arakan region under the name "Kanyan." Some went up to the Pontaung-Ponnya mountain range. They were called "Yaw."

Some Bamar searched for a new place between the two rivers, the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin. At that time, good settlement areas were scarce for the Bamar. The good, flat lands were under the control of the Pyu people.

The Shwebo vicinity was under the Halingyi Pyu. The Ledwin (central plain) region was under the Pinle Pyu. The lower country was the territory of the Sri Ksetra Pyu.

As the Bamar searched for a new place, they also desired the river valley area. However, good places in the river valley were scarce. Therefore, they had to settle in an area that the Pyu people did not covet. That area was the bend of the Irrawaddy River, which would later become the great city of Arimaddana, or Pagan.

The area at the foot of Tuyin Taung hill in the bend of the Irrawaddy River, although near the river, was not good for agriculture. It was also a low-rainfall area. The climate was hot. Therefore, in the Kyansittha stone inscriptions, the Pagan region was called "Tattadesa" (a place of intense heat). Because it was a valley of red, sandy soil, it was also inscribed in the Shin Disapamaukha stone inscription as "Tambadīpa" (the copper-colored island).

Around the 6th century CE, the Bamar had gathered strength. They established their own culture. In 638 CE, the Bamar adopted their own era.

Around the 9th century CE, the Bamar people who had been separated in the Nanzhao region, and those of the same lineage, the "Min" group, also arrived in Burma. At that time, the Bamar strength had grown, and they founded a new kingdom with Pagan as its center.

At that time, the Pyu people were also in a state of disarray. Sri Ksetra had fallen into ruin due to ethnic conflicts, religious disputes, and other reasons. The administrative authority was no longer stable. Power struggles broke out, and the capital was destroyed.

The northern city of Halingyi was also destroyed by the attacks of the Nanzhao in 832 CE. Again, in 835 CE, the first Pinle city (called Mi-chen = rice city, in Chinese) near the Panlaung River in the Ledwin region was also continuously attacked and destroyed by the Nanzhao. Thus, the administrative systems of the Pyu region were destroyed.

At that time, the Bamar in the Pagan region were able to expand their kingdom's power. They came to rule over the Pyu territories as well. The Pyu people gradually came under the rule of the Bamar. In later centuries, the Pyu intermingled with the Bamar, and it reached a stage where "Pyu is also Bamar, and Bamar is also Pyu."

 

The Theravada Kingdom

Around the 8th century CE, in the small city-states of the Pyu, religious beliefs were in a state of confusion. Various beliefs such as Mahayana, Brahmanism, Nat worship, and Naga worship were accepted and practiced.

When the new kingdom of Burma was founded, these various beliefs spread to the city of Pagan. That is why various beliefs are found in the early Pagan period. Among these beliefs, the Tantra sect of the Samatī Araññikas was the most widespread. In the early Pagan period, there were 30 leading Tantric monks and a following of 60,000.

When King Anawrahta ascended the throne, various beliefs were competing with each other. King Anawrahta had a strong desire to purify the religion. However, he did not know how to proceed.

At that time, he met the venerable Shin Arahan from Thaton. He had the opportunity to listen to the Buddha's Theravada teachings. King Anawrahta was very pleased with the venerable Shin Arahan's teachings. He became very faithful and devoted. He decided to make Theravada Buddhism flourish in his capital, Pagan.

Then, taking the venerable Shin Arahan as his teacher, he began the work of purifying the religion. He abolished the beliefs that the people had previously worshipped. The Araññika monks, who had been deceiving the people of Pagan with their Tantric and mantra practices, were forced to disrobe. Then, the disrobed Araññika monks were assigned the tasks of being mahouts, spearmen, elephant dung collectors, and horse dung collectors.

During the reign of the Farmer King, the Naga worship that had been encouraged and flourished was also banned by royal decree.

From that time onwards, Theravada Buddhism flourished. Because the ruling king encouraged it, the citizens also came to worship and revere Buddhism. Later, Myanmar became a Theravada Buddhist country.

 

Buddhism Under the Burmese Kings

The Theravada Buddhism established by King Anawrahta, after being firmly established, seemed to weaken during the reign of King Sawlu.

King Sawlu was a king of weak character. He did not promote capable people. He kept those who would endanger him in the palace and promoted them. He even banished a loyal and capable person like Kyansittha from the capital Pagan.

Taking this opportunity, Nga Yaman, the governor of Pegu, rebelled. Nga Yaman was a governor promoted by King Sawlu. Nga Yaman gathered his forces and marched to seize the capital Pagan.

King Sawlu personally led his army to fight Nga Yaman's advance. Due to his lack of understanding of Nga Yaman's military strategy, King Sawlu was captured. At that time, Kyansittha went to rescue him. However, being suspicious of Kyansittha, he did not accept the rescue. In the end, King Sawlu was killed by Nga Yaman.

Due to Nga Yaman's invasion, the people of Pagan were terrified. When King Sawlu fell and the Pagan army was defeated, the people and monks of the capital fled to places far from the city. The population of Pagan suddenly decreased, and the once bustling Sangha also became scarce.

Later, under the leadership of Kyansittha, Nga Yaman's rebellion was suppressed. With Kyansittha's victory, the people of Pagan entrusted the throne of Pagan to him. Kyansittha became king unexpectedly.

King Kyansittha had to work to make Pagan prosper again. He called back the fleeing people of Pagan. He invited back the monks. Because of this re-gathering, the Buddhist Sāsana in Pagan continued to develop.

Then, throughout the Pagan period, the succeeding kings continued to worship Theravada Buddhism. They encouraged and promoted it. Throughout the lineage of Burmese kings, there were very few kings who did not give importance to Buddhism and acted disrespectfully.

King Narathu of the Pagan period once caused trouble for the monks. In the Ava period, a king like Thohanbwa, who did not believe in Buddhism and therefore killed monks, was also found. Thohanbwa was not a Buddhist, which is why he persecuted the servants of the Sāsana.

In the early days, there was a very rare case of a king who was a Buddhist but later betrayed his own religion and converted to another. That king was Natshinnaung, the king of Toungoo, who was called the Yadu king.

Throughout Burmese history and chronicles, those who cast a dark shadow on Buddhism were only these three kings.

 

Chapter 7: Theravada Sects

Sects of the Pagan Period

Just as Buddhist monastic sects arose in India and Sri Lanka, monastic sects also arose in Myanmar. However, the schisms in the Indian sects were very pronounced, differing in dress, practice, and scripture.

In Myanmar, the schisms were not so pronounced. The divisions occurred within the shade of Theravada. When studying the schisms of the Myanmar Sāsana, some were based on pride, while others were based on minor differences in opinion.

Some were based on minor differences in practice. Some schisms occurred with the backing of the ruling king. Some were based on devotion to a teacher and ego. In the Pagan period, initially, there was only one Sangha community, which was established and led by the venerable Shin Arahan who came from Thaton. During the reign of King Narapatisithu, the Sangha community that returned from Sihala (Sri Lanka), based on devotion to their teacher, performed their own Sangha acts separately, and from this, another sect emerged.

From that time, two Sangha sects appeared in the land of Pagan. They were:

(1)   The Purima Saṅgha sect,

(2)   The Pacchima Saṅgha sect.

 

(1)   The Purima Saṅgha sect was the original Sangha sect founded by the venerable Shin Arahan.

(2)   The Pacchima Saṅgha sect was the sect founded by the venerable Chapada Mahathera.

Chapada went to Sihala and, after studying the scriptures, invited the venerable Sīvali, the venerable Tāmalinda, the venerable Ānanda, and the venerable Rāhula on his return. When they arrived in Burma, they performed their own Sangha acts. King Narapatisithu also supported that group of monks. Because that sect arose later, it was called the "Pacchima Saṅgha sect" (the later Sangha).

From that sect, the venerable Rāhula disrobed and went to Malayu. Soon after, the venerable Chapada also passed away. Only three leading Mahatheras remained.

Those three Mahatheras also later disagreed and split over matters related to gains and offerings. They each founded their own sect. At that time, in the land of Pagan:

(1)  The Purima Saṅgha sect, ...and from the Pacchima Saṅgha sect:

(2)  The lineage sect of the venerable Sīvali,

(3)  The lineage sect of the venerable Tāmalinda,

(4)  The Ānanda sect.

(5)  Thus, four sects emerged.

 

The Ramanya Sangha Sects

In the later Pagan period, in the lower country, Sangha sects called the Ramanya sects also emerged. Some of these sects were offshoots that spread from the Pagan monastic schisms.

During the reign of King Dhammazedi, who ruled over Hanthawaddy in the Ramanya country, there were as many as six major Sangha sects.

(1)   The Kamboja sect: This was the lineage sect descended from the venerable Soṇa and the venerable Uttara from the time of King Asoka. This sect was also called the "Ariya Saṅgha sect." A venerable monk from this sect was prominent because he was well-versed in the scriptures (pariyatti). That venerable monk resided near the Pinga stream in the city of Lakkhīya. There was also a large market near that monastery. In the vicinity of that market, tailors from the Kamboja country were made to live. That market was also called the Kamboja market. Later, the monastery was also called the Kamboja market monastery.

One day, a donor named Sirisīdhaja from the city of Dala built a large monastery and offered it in worship to the venerable monk of the Kamboja market monastery. The Sangha that descended from that venerable monk were called the "Kamboja sect" Sangha.

(2)   The Shin Sīvali sect: This sect was an offshoot that spread from the venerable Sīvali Mahathera's sect in Pagan.

(3)   The Shin Tāmalinda sect: It also came from Pagan.

(4)   The Shin Ānanda sect: It also came from Pagan.

(5)   The Shin Buddhavaṃsa sect: The venerable Buddhavaṃsa, a native of the city of Muttama (Martaban), went to Sihala, received higher ordination, and returned. Because the queen worshipped him, he was called the queen's teacher. That teacher also founded a sect and performed Sangha acts separately.

(6)   The Shin Mahānāga sect: That venerable one was also a native of the city of Muttama. He went to Sihala and received higher ordination. Upon his return, he performed Sangha acts separately and founded a sect.

The six major sects mentioned above did not associate with each other. They performed Sangha acts only among their own sect members. They conducted and practiced in this manner until the time King Dhammazedi ascended the throne.

King Dhammazedi was particularly dedicated to promoting the flourishing and spread of the Sāsana. He built many religious structures. He supported the Sangha with the four requisites. However, because the Sangha did not associate with each other sect-wise, he did not seem satisfied. He wanted the Sangha to be united. However, because they had been divided since ancient times, it was not easy to unite them.

 

Purification of the Sāsana

King Dhammazedi, unable to unite the monastic sects, decided to establish a separate Sāsana. He used the issue of the validity of ordination halls (sima) as a pretext.

King Dhammazedi, claiming that the existing ordination halls were of doubtful validity, sent monks to Sihala (Sri Lanka) to receive new ordination. Upon their return, he consecrated the great Kalyani Sima with the monks who had returned from Sihala. He had a large number of new ordinations conducted in that great ordination hall. He also had other monks receive new ordination. King Dhammazedi gave preference to monks ordained at the Kalyani Sima. He no longer paid much attention to those ordained in other ordination halls.

King Dhammazedi's actions can be said to have been successful. Later, monks from the six sects mentioned above also received new ordination at the Kalyani Sima. They became united.

After the time of Dhammazedi, the monastic schisms also faded. They disappeared. King Dhammazedi's efforts to unify the sects are worthy of praise.

King Dhammazedi also paid attention to and carried out the purification of the Sāsana. In that era, there were those who practiced things that were not in accordance with the Sāsana.

He requested the senior monks to effectively prohibit such monks. From the king's requests for the purification of the Sāsana, one can see the impurities of that era from the following points:

• Monks who practice medicine.
• Monks who practice the arts of numerology (astrology), carpentry, and ivory carving.
• Monks who serve by carrying and tending to the children of kings, ministers, and others.
• Monks who preach with long, song-like tones in the cotton, paddy, millet, and chili fields, and upon receiving cotton, paddy, millet, chili, etc., engage in trade.
• Monks who live intermingled with unsuitable lay people.

All those monks are base monks. May the venerable sirs not give permission for those base monks to live permanently in your presence.

King Dhammazedi was a king who gave priority to and acted for the purification of the Sāsana and the correctness of views.

 

The Araññika Sect

From the later Pagan period onwards, two major sects flourished throughout Burma. These two major sects were the "Araññika sect" and the "Pwe Kyaung sect."

The Araññika sect to be described now is not the Araññika sect that existed before Anawrahta. The Araññika sect before Anawrahta was a splinter group from the Mahayana sect called the Tantra sect. That sect was suppressed by King Anawrahta and disappeared from the 11th century. That sect can be called the first Araññika sect.

The Araññika sect to be described now is a sect that emerged from the time of King Narapatisithu. This sect is not included in the lineage of teachers in the history of the Sāsana. It is a sect that has been discovered by researchers through reference to stone inscriptions.

The word "Araññika" is the nominal form of the Pali word "arañña." In Burmese, it means "forest monastery sect."

Although the members of the forest monastery sect, the Araññikas, lived in forest monasteries, they were not people who practiced meditation. They pursued worldly ideologies. They inherited and practiced the activities of the Tantra sect. They engaged in activities for attaining occult powers and magical abilities.

It is found in old stone inscriptions that the members of the Araññika sect ate meat, drank intoxicating liquor, and accepted donations of meat and liquor at night and consumed them.

The founder of that sect was Shin Kassapa. Shin Kassapa lived in a forest monastery and widely propagated the activities of the Tantra sect. He himself had received ordination as a Theravada Buddhist monk. He took refuge under the shade of Theravada and diligently carried out worldly Tantric activities.

In the biography of that Shin Kassapa, he is described in a wondrous way with fantastic stories such as traveling by riding a tiger and crossing the ocean by riding a crocodile. People with weak intellect believed him to be a person of great power, magical ability, and great psychic powers.

That Shin Kassapa expanded and propagated his sect from a place called the lower forest monastery. In ancient times, it was called Kyantū (Kantū). Now it is near the Chindwin River bridge in Yesagyo, on the east bank. The old site of Shin Kassapa's forest monastery can still be seen today.

That venerable one went to Pagan during the reign of King Narapatisithu. The people of Pagan revered the great venerable one. They liked and were pleased with his Tantra-like activities. People from the circle of royal ministers built monasteries in Pagan for the venerable one. They donated much land.

The people of Pagan became interested in the activities of the Araññikas, which were Tantra-like. They came to hope for the attainment of supernatural powers and the help of gods and goddesses. They came to accept and hope for the doctrine of "relying on others" rather than the doctrine of "relying on oneself."

In the 13th century CE, the Mongols invaded and attacked. At that time, the Burmese, who were obsessed with escapist ideologies and supernatural objects, had to face defeat. Was not this reason a major factor, although not the main one, in the military defeat? It cannot be denied that it was one of the reasons.

In India too, due to such escapist ideologies, did not the country easily fall into the hands of foreigners? Did not Buddhism also disappear?

Towards the end of the Pagan period, the great forest monastery sect reached its peak. Even after the death of Shin Kassapa, his disciples continued the activities of the Araññika sect.

At that time, the traditional city-dwelling (gāmavāsī) sects that had been propagating the Sāsana and teaching the scriptures did not seem to be as popular with the people as the Araññika sect. Some of the city-dwelling teachers realized that if they followed this fanciful path, the Sāsana would decline, and the country would suffer.

When the Pinya period arrived, the gāmavāsī monks who were spreading the Pariyatti Sāsana (the study of scriptures) founded the "Pwe Kyaung sect," which was based on practical skills. When the Pwe Kyaung sect became prominent and developed, the Araññika sect gradually weakened. Historians estimate that the forest monastery sect called the Araññika sect disappeared around the 15th century.

Although the great Araññika sect disappeared, Theravada-named monks who continued to inherit and practice the activities of the Araññikas are still found.

Figures such as the Bame Sayadaw, the Bantamo Sayadaw, and the Ngane Sayadaw were figures who became famous in later periods by inheriting the activities of the Araññikas.

The Chittaja-vedanā (mind-based alchemy/magic) activities diligently pursued by the Araññikas are not easily eradicated from among the Sangha. Based on human escapist thoughts and intense escapist greed, they will surely exist. Even up to the present day, near the end of the 20th century, they intermittently appear throughout Myanmar and remain powerful.

 

The Pwe Kyaung Sect

The source of the Pwe Kyaung sect was the seven monasteries of Sagaing. King Uzzana ascended the throne in Pinya in the year 684 of the Burmese Era (1322 CE). King Uzzana built seven new large monasteries in the Pinya area of Sagaing. In the year 702 BE (1340 CE), he offered the great monasteries to the venerable monks from the gāmavāsī sect who had been prominent in the Pagan period.

King Uzzana offered his great monasteries to venerable monks from the two major gāmavāsī sects. In the Pagan period, the gāmavāsī Sangha were divided into two sects: the Purima Saṅgha sect of the lineage of Shin Arahan, and the Pacchima Saṅgha sect of the lineage of Shin Chapada.

King Uzzana offered the great monasteries jointly to the venerable monks from both sects. It seems that his intention was to make the sects associate and be harmonious with each other.

If he had such an intention, it can be said that King Uzzana's wish was fulfilled. This is because the schisms between the gāmavāsī sects disappeared.

The Sangha who received the donation of the seven Sagaing monasteries abolished the sectarian mentality that had existed in the Pagan period and fostered a spirit of unity. They jointly taught practical skills for the future of the kingdom.

The worldly skills taught by the Sagaing monasteries were subjects such as swordsmanship, spearmanship, horsemanship, elephantry, warfare, mechanical spear-throwing, and boxing.

In that era, the people entrusted their children to the gāmavāsī monasteries, where a wide range of worldly and spiritual subjects were taught, to have them learn the skills. Therefore, the gāmavāsī monasteries became great centers where many children and adults came and went.

Because of this large congregation of people, the gāmavāsī monasteries came to be called "Pwe Kyaung" (festival/assembly monasteries). In later times, as the Pwe Kyaungs increased, the Sangha members of the Pwe Kyaung also increased. As this Sangha force grew, it became prominently known as the "Pwe Kyaung sect."

As the Pwe Kyaung sect grew in strength, the land and property donated to the Pwe Kyaungs also became immense. The Pwe Kyaung Sangha had to perform duties such as assigning tenants to the land, collecting taxes, making public announcements, and measuring and collecting paddy. They had to find cattle for the tenants and resolve the disputes of the tenants.

Because the Pwe Kyaung Sangha were busy with matters such as land disputes, they could not properly perform the work of studying and practicing the scriptures (pariyatti and paṭipatti). In some cases, the leading senior monks themselves had to resolve legal cases related to the Sāsana. Since some senior monks had to rule and resolve legal cases concerning the Sāsana like a king, these chief monks came to be called "Saṅgharāja" (king of the Sangha).

The Burmese kings also studied literature in the Pwe Kyaungs in their childhood. They had to acquire worldly knowledge. Therefore, when they became kings, they donated the four requisites to and worshipped their teacher, the Saṅgharāja.

King Thadominbya, who founded Ava in the year 726 BE (1364 CE), took the great Saṅgharāja of Patu as his teacher and worshipped and revered him.

During the reign of King Mingyiswa-Swa-ke, who ascended the throne in 730 BE (1368 CE), he conferred the title of Saṅgharāja on the Arakanese Sayadaw and worshipped and revered him.

During the reign of King Minkhaung I, who ascended the throne in 763 BE (1401 CE), he also worshipped and revered the Saṅgharāja Sayadaws of the Pwe Kyaung sect. The famous boxer Aung Si Khon Saṅgharāja emerged during the reign of that king.

The great Pwe Kyaung sect, having prospered through the ages, began to weaken in the late Nyaungyan period. This was partly because new sects arose in Burma.

When the Konbaung period arrived during the reign of King Bodawpaya, the Pwe Kyaung Sayadaws were no longer worshipped. Later, the Pwe Kyaung sect was banned by royal decree. Bodawpaya abolished it on the grounds that the kingdom could be rebelled against with the knowledge taught by the Pwe Kyaung sect.

Then, the people and the Sangha were dissatisfied because the Pwe Kyaungs were abolished. Under these circumstances, Bodawpaya again gave permission for the Pwe Kyaungs to be reopened. However, since many of the Pwe Kyaungs had been destroyed, they could not prosper and flourish again. Only a few Pwe Kyaungs could be reopened.

While the Pwe Kyaungs were trying to regain their strength, King Mindon ascended the throne. King Mindon completely closed down the gāmavāsī Pwe Kyaungs in the year 1217 BE (1855 CE). From that time, the Pwe Kyaung sect also completely disappeared.

The great Pwe Kyaung sect was founded from the year 702 BE (1340 CE). It was completely abolished by King Mindon in the year 1217 BE (1855 CE). Therefore, it can be said that the great Pwe Kyaung sect had a long lifespan of 515 years.

 

The Atin Sect and the Ayon Sect

The Atin sect and the Ayon sect are prominent sects in the history of the Sāsana. They have also been written about extensively.

The Atin sect is said to have emerged during the reign of the prince of Yamethin, King Sanay, who ascended the throne in the year 1060 BE (1698 CE). In that king's reign, the venerable Guṇābhilaṅkāra Mahathera, who lived in the monastery of Ton village, on the west bank of the Chindwin River in the Salavati region, is said to be the founder of the Atin sect.

The Sayadaw did not have novices wear their robes fully when entering and leaving the village, but had them enter with the robe placed only over the left shoulder. He had them carry a fan. Because one had to enter with the robe placed on one shoulder, it was called the "Atin sect" (placing-on sect). Since it was the sect founded by the Ton village Sayadaw, it was also called the "Ton sect."

At that time, the venerable Buddhankura, who lived in the city of Taungoo, the venerable Citta, who lived in the rural areas of Debayin city, and the venerable Sunanda and Kalyāṇa, who lived in the Ngayant-O village of Tabayin, however, had novices wear their robes fully and carry their fans when entering the village. Because they had to wear the robe fully when entering and leaving the village, it was called the "Ayon sect" (wearing-fully sect).

Based on the issue of placing on or wearing the robe fully, the two great sects split. Later, these great sects grew. A conflict arose based on a minor difference of opinion. The sects were not in harmony with each other.

The members of the Ayon sect, during the reign of King Tanin-ganway and the reign of the King who reached Hanthawaddy, proposed that their Ayon doctrine was the correct one, and they had to debate the Atin-Ayon issue. However, the problem could not be resolved.

Later, when King Singu ascended the throne, the members of the Ayon sect again proposed that their Ayon doctrine was the correct one. Therefore, a final decision had to be made on the Atin-Ayon issue. At that time, the Ayon sect won, and the great Atin sect declined.

During the reign of King Bodawpaya, the Atin-Ayon issue arose again. However, the matter did not escalate. Later, only the Ayon sect grew in strength, and the Atin sect gradually declined and faded away.

 

Today's Sects

In the present day, there are nine major Theravada sects recognized in Myanmar. They are:

(1)   The Sudhamma sect,

(2)   The Shwegyin sect,

(3)   The Mahadwara sect,

(4)   The Muladwara sect,

(5)   The Anaukchaungdwara sect,

(6)   The Veluvana sect,

(7)   The Hnget-twin sect,

(8)   The Ganavimutti sect,

(9)   The Mahayin sect.

Among these great sects, the Sudhamma sect is the oldest sect, as well as the largest in terms of membership.

All nine of the currently existing sects are sects that have separated from within the Theravada framework. They are not sects that reject the Theravada Piṭaka and rebel like the Mahayana sect. They are separated based on minor, insignificant differences of opinion.

The government of Myanmar, with the desire to unite the separated great sects, met with the senior Sayadaws of the sects and discussed the matter. They requested that there be unity among the Theravada sects.

Then, a joint assembly of all sects was successfully held in the Mahāpāsāṇa Cave on Kaba Aye Hill in the year 1980 CE, 1342 BE, in the month of Nayon. From that joint assembly of all sects, the State Saṅgha Mahā Nāyaka Committee, composed of members from all sects, was formed at various levels, and they have been carrying out the duties of the Sāsana.

 

Comparative Population of Religions

Myanmar, through successive ages, has passed down and worshipped only Theravada Buddhism. As the population increased, the number of Buddhists also increased.

Although the statistics of Buddhists during the reigns of the Burmese kings are not found, the religious population statistics during the colonial period ruled by the British are known precisely. During the colonial period, around 1920, the population of Myanmar was only about 13 million. At that time, the statistics of the members of each religion were found as follows:

...Religion: Male + Female, Total Population

Buddhism... Male: [not provided], Total: 5,676,784

Nat Worshippers... Male: 369,188, Female: 222,200

Hinduism... Male: 378,177, Female: 106,255

[The numbers for women in the original OCR seem to be for a different category or misaligned.]

Christianity... Male: 132,499, Female: 124,608

Aryan Religion... Male: 190, Female: 90

Brahmo Samaj... Male: 299, Female: 92

Confucianism... Male: 9,964, Female: 4,067

Judaism... Male: 866, Female: [not provided]

Shintoism... Male: 20, Female: 14

Sikhism... Male: 2,704, Female: 1,139

Zoroastrianism... Male: 228, Female: 151

Theosophy... Male: 40, Female: 11

Non-religious... Male: 21,453, Female: [not provided]

At that time, the total population of Myanmar was 13,169,099. Among that population, there were 106,429 monks and 47,342 nuns. (From "Political Dhamma Sermon Naya Dīpanī")

By the year 1986, the population of Myanmar had reached 33 million. At that time, the number of Buddhists had increased. The number of followers of other religions had also increased, as can be seen.

Buddhists: over 30,000,000

Christians: over 1,600,000

Muslims: over 1,300,000

Nat Worshippers: 290,000

Hindus: 170,000

Others: 52,000

In the year 1356 of the Burmese Era (1994/95 CE), the population of Myanmar was known to be over 40 million. Among them:

Monks: 162,098

Novices: 233,840

Nuns: 20,28- [number incomplete]

were present.

 

Chapter 1 (Second Part): Syncretic Beliefs in Theravada

Beliefs Mixed in Theravada

According to the latest statistics, it is known that there are over three hundred ninety thousand Nat worshippers in Myanmar. This population consists of ethnic groups in the mountainous regions where Buddhism has not yet reached.

However, if a count were taken of those who worship traditional Nats along with Buddhism, the number would likely reach over 30 million again. This is because 90 percent of those who worship Buddhism are unable to let go of their traditional Nats and continue to worship them.

It is true. Today, the people of the Union of Myanmar mainly worship Buddhism. However, they also worship traditional Nats, placing them in a subordinate position. They make offerings and propitiate them. Along with their Buddhist faith, they also hold and embrace Nat ideology.

The practice of Nat worship is not only in Myanmar. In other countries as well, people worship and make offerings to their own traditional Nats. Nat worship is a very old, worn-out, and imaginative ideology that has existed from ancient times to the present day.

When studying the early history of the world, it is found that Nat ideologies dominated through successive ages. Early humans, through their thoughts, sought and created various Nat images to worship. They established Nat religions and Nat ideologies. The summary history of the world's Nat ideologies should be extracted and studied.

The Rise of Worship

From about 7,000 years ago (5,000 BCE), human civilizations began to develop and change. Agricultural practices were widely adopted. They invented agricultural tools. With agriculture, new thoughts and ideas also emerged.

The earth provides crops for human nourishment. Water also supports the growth of crops. Sunlight also helps crops to grow. Humans came to understand this concept. Therefore, natural objects such as earth, water, and sun were regarded as great benefactors of humanity.

As time went on, great natural elements like earth and water came to be believed in as powerful entities. These powerful entities became objects of reliance and worship for humans. Thus, Nats such as the earth Nat, water Nat, wind Nat, sun Nat, and fire Nat emerged. The Nats worshipped at that time were a religion that worshipped natural physical objects, and so it is called "Nature Worship."

In the early age of worship, humans established a religious ideology based on natural physical objects. From there, they began to think and reason about the natural world.

They came up with the idea that the great world and the living and non-living things on it must have been created by someone, and they formulated the concept of an unseen and unheard powerful entity.

This powerful creator entity was believed to be the benefactor of humanity and the object of human worship. This creator entity was believed to exist eternally and to be indestructible. Thus, a religion created through abstract thought emerged in the human world.

After 3,000 BCE, ideologies based on both the material and the immaterial flourished in the human world. Based on these ideologies, intellectual cultures flourished. Based on intellectual culture, various arts emerged. As great milestones of intellectual culture, world-famous great shrines emerged.

Early humans created their social systems with a religious perspective. They also implemented their administrative systems with Nat ideology. Then, a class of officials who made a living through the Nat religion emerged. These Nat officials preached, embellishing the magical powers of their Nats. They elevated the inherent power of natural physical objects to the level of Nat magical power.

When Nat worship became fashionable, skills born from mental thought also flourished. The arts of mantra, astrology, Nat prophecy, magic, and sacrificial offerings are activities born from mental thought.

When studying the early history of the world, the Nats that were invented were only natural physical objects. The physical objects were things that existed naturally. They were not beings with life and consciousness.

In later periods, they came to worship a multitude of physical objects such as trees, forests, mountains, rocks, lightning, rivers, and streams, imagining that they possessed life and consciousness.

When studying the early history of world religious ideologies, one finds:

(1)   The ideology of worshipping material physical objects.

(2)   The ideology of worshipping an immaterial, imaginary creator god.
Thus, two types are found.

Both of these are religions of worship created through mental thought according to human desires.

In the early history of the world, the regions where such imaginative religious thoughts originated were countries such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, India, China, Greece, and Rome.

From the above regions, the beliefs later spread throughout the world. As countries traded with each other, the cultures of worship and religion also spread.

Among those beliefs, Nat worship also spread and was transmitted to Myanmar. The Nats that arrived in Myanmar were mostly Nats imported from India.

 

The Nat Worship of the Bamar

The Bamar people, before they arrived in Myanmar around 4,000 years ago (2,000 BCE), were not yet present. At that time, the people who would come to be called Bamar were settled in the northwestern region of China. At that time, the name of the Bamar was "Chiang."

The Chiang people, due to various reasons, migrated and entered Myanmar around the 5th century CE.

Historians state that the Chiang people had customs of Nat worship before they arrived in the plains of Myanmar. The Nats worshipped by the Chiang were household Nats, field Nats, mountain Nats, forest Nats, and tree Nats. It is also said that there was a custom of making sacrificial offerings to Nats that made the crops flourish. The early Nats worshipped by the Bamar were also beliefs that imagined physical objects to have a spirit.

After the Chiang people arrived in Myanmar, they adopted the name "Bamar." The Bamar people had to associate with the Pyu people in the plains. They learned cultural practices from the Pyu.

At that time, although the Pyu people mainly worshipped Theravada Buddhism, there were also other beliefs such as Hindu-Brahmanism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Naga worship.

When the Bamar people took over and ruled the Pyu kingdom, they also adopted the beliefs of worship from the Pyu. Among them, Nat worship was also included. The Nats that were passed down from the Pyu were also numerous. Among them, the worship of the Thagyamin Nat was at the forefront.

 

Thagyamin Nat Worship

Thagyamin Nat worship is particularly important in India. The Thagyamin Nat is called "Indra" in Sanskrit. In Pali, it is called "Inda." However, the term "Sakka" is more commonly used. The Burmese translated the term "Sakka" as "Thagya" and called him so.

That Thagyamin Nat is a great Nat who is frequently found not only in ancient Brahminical scriptures but also in Buddhist literature. When studying the history of the origin of that Nat, it is found that he was first worshipped by the Aryan people. The story of the Thagyamin is as follows:

Around 2,000 BCE, in the vast grasslands of Central Asia, uncivilized peoples lived. These peoples expanded their travels in the four cardinal directions from their original homeland. Some went west, some south, and some came east.

The people who headed east entered India through the Khyber Pass in the northwest, riding horse-drawn chariots. These people are called the "Aryan" people.

After the Aryan people arrived in the Indus Valley, they plundered and attacked the settlements of the local Dravidian people. The Dravidians fought back against the attacks of the Aryans. However, they could not repel the Aryans. Therefore, they had to abandon the Indus Valley and move to the Ganges Valley. Here, the Indus Valley was dominated and ruled by the Aryans.

The Aryans, even before they arrived in the Indus Valley, had brought with them their Nat worship. Their main object of worship was the Nat called Indra, or Thagyamin. The Indra Nat was the one who wielded the Vajra weapon, the thunderbolt.

The early Aryan people were very afraid of lightning strikes and were also very amazed by them. They believed that lightning strikes were due to the power and might of a very powerful great Nat. Therefore, they called the owner of the thunderbolt weapon Indra (Inda), the Thagyamin Nat, and worshipped him.

When they arrived in the Indus Valley, the Thagyamin Nat, the owner of the thunderbolt weapon, became the king of all Nats. His supernatural powers were elevated above those of other Nats.

Biographies embellishing the story of Thagyamin were written. In the Pali Abhidhāna and Ṭīkā scriptures, as many as 37 epithets of the Thagyamin Nat are listed.

Later, the Aryans incorporated the Thagyamin Nat into the religious world and placed him in a central position. The Nat called Indra became the greatest Nat among the 33 great Nats worshipped by the Aryan people and was placed at the forefront.

When Nat worship flourished in India, the people proudly referred to themselves as being of Nat lineage, of Nat clan, and as Nat worshippers. They became related to the Nats. They proudly called themselves "Nat-thas" (Devaputta), those born of Nats. Later, King Kanishka, who ruled in India, took the title of "Devaputta" (son of a god).

The monks who were servants of the Buddha's Sāsana were proudly called "sons of the Buddha." It is not surprising that the Nat worshippers also called themselves "sons of the Nat."

When studying the story of the Thagyamin Nat from Nat history, it is found that this Nat was also a concept born from the nature worship of the early historical period. The Thagyamin Nat was the worship of the natural phenomenon of lightning, which causes thunderbolts, as a Nat.

The worship of the Thagyamin Nat spread to Myanmar from the Sri Ksetra period. The Bamar people inherited and worshipped him from the Pyu. He is the leading character Nat who is included in both the inner 37-min Nat list and the outer 37-min Nat list in Myanmar, as well as in many other Nat positions.

When studying early Burmese history, the Thagyamin is found in many places. The Thagyamin was involved in the founding of the city of Sri Ksetra. It is said that when King Pyusawhti ascended the throne, the Thagyamin supported him with his right hand and placed him on the throne. Here, the author of the Rājādhirāja Vilāsinī chronicle has concluded that the so-called Thagyamin was a minister who dressed in the attire of the Thagyamin and performed the enthronement, which is a naturalistic and humorous historical account.

 

Thurathati (Saraswati) Nat Worship

The early Aryans, while dominating the northwestern region of India, formulated new cultural and intellectual ideas. They wrote and compiled literary works that would become the basis of their religion. These literary works were called the Vedas.

The region where the Vedas emerged was the upper region of the Saraswati River, between the Jamuna (Yamuna) and Sutlej rivers. The Saraswati River was a beneficial river for the early Aryans. The Aryans, according to their early customs, also designated the Saraswati River, which benefited them, as an object of worship.

Just as the people of Myanmar call the Irrawaddy River "Mother Irrawaddy" because it bestows favors upon them, the Aryans also affectionately called their river "Mother Saraswati." From there, as the form of worship changed, Saraswati also became a goddess.

Just as the Hindus hold the Ganges River in the highest esteem, the Aryans held the Saraswati River in high esteem and worshipped it. They held worship ceremonies on the banks of the Saraswati River and offered prayers with stanzas and hymns, sang songs, and made requests for boons.

When the Vedic era arrived, the goddess Saraswati was believed to be not only the goddess of the river but also the goddess who guards speech and who is skilled in speaking pleasant words.

As the power of the goddess Saraswati grew, a great deal of literature was composed about her power. Various powers were attributed to her.

In the Rig Veda, the goddess Saraswati is the guardian of the sun, moon, ocean, and the entire world. She makes her worshippers free from suffering. She protects them so that they become prosperous. She is the ruler of all knowledge. She is the most exalted among the worshipped Nats. Because she always guards all beings, she is respected by all the Nats.

The worship of the goddess Saraswati later entered Hinduism. When she came into the hands of the Hindus, new powers were created for her again.

The goddess became the guardian not only of speech but of all arts, the ruler of music, poetry, and literature, and the creator of the Sanskrit language. As the belief grew, so did the number of worshippers. When they thought that they would achieve their desired success if they created and worshipped idols and images, they created and worshipped idols.

The worship of Saraswati later entered Buddhism as well. The Buddhists called her "Thurathati" in the Pali language.

When the worship of Thurathati entered Buddhism, a new power was added, making the goddess Thurathati the guardian of the three Piṭakas. Therefore, when creating her image, she was made to hold the scriptures in her hand.

Thurathati, from the Vedic era to the Hindu and Buddhist eras, has been a goddess of great power and great prestige. Just as people boast when they are related to a prestigious person, literary works that created relationships with the prestigious Thurathati also emerged. Fictional stories relating to Thurathati were created.

It is explained that the goddess Thurathati was born from the great sage Mahāmuni and the sea goddess, that she first lived in the ocean, and later moved from the ocean to Mount Kailash, a peak in the Himalayas, riding a swan. It is written that the drops of water that fell from her body as she rode the swan became a river, and that river was called the Thurathati River.

This story is said to be a "fictional work of the sages." The sages had related themselves as the fathers who gave birth to Thurathati.

In the Brahminical Puranas, however, the great Brahma created a woman from his own pure blood. That woman was Thurathati. Although Thurathati was initially the daughter of Brahma, later, because Brahma himself took her, she became Brahma's wife.

The Hindus related themselves to Thurathati in various ways and proudly boasted.

The worship of Thurathati, which is a Hindu belief, is still practiced in Nepal today. In Nepal, one day of the year is designated as a festival day to worship the goddess Thurathati.

The people of Myanmar also accepted and believed in the worship of Thurathati, copying it exactly as the Hindus believed. They created and printed images and worshipped them. They recited and worshipped her with various laudatory stanzas. The people of Myanmar have included Thurathati in the Nat list called the inner 37-min.

The image of the goddess Thurathati, who became famous through the worship of a river's name as a Nat, is now proudly displayed in some homes in Burma with great power.

 

Kwan Yin Medaw Worship

Kwan Yin Medaw is not included in the inner 37-min or the outer 37-min Nat lists. She was also not in the supplementary Nat lists of ancient times. She is an imported Nat from China who arrived in Myanmar not long ago.

Kwan Yin is called Kannon in Japanese. The Nat called Kwan Yin Medaw is a Nat derived from the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who is primarily worshipped by the great Mahayana sect. Avalokiteshvara was originally a male Nat. Some say that she was transformed into a female form and worshipped from the late 8th century CE.

The emergence of Kwan Yin Medaw is written and spoken of in various ways. The followers of the Mahayana sect, emulating the Hindu Tantra sect, founded the Mahayana Tantra sect. Just as the Hindu Tantra sect created various Devi goddesses, the Mahayana Tantra sect also created various forms of Devi goddesses.

The Mahayana Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara was also given a consort, the goddess Prajñāpāramitā. This goddess could only be worshipped by monks. Therefore, to allow ordinary laypeople to worship, the goddess Mahācīnatārādevī was created. It is also said that this Cīnatārādevī was born from a lotus flower that grew from the tear of Avalokiteshvara, who is called Kwan Yin in Chinese. It is also said that this Cīnatārādevī was created and worshipped as Kwan Yin Medaw.

Some also say that when Avalokiteshvara was in his male form, women were not allowed to worship him. Therefore, Avalokiteshvara himself was transformed into a female form and worshipped.

It is believed that Kwan Yin Medaw rescues and protects the people of the world with the love and compassion of a mother for her children. There are also many rather fantastic legendary stories about Kwan Yin.

The basis of the various names such as Prajñāpāramitā, Cīnatārādevī, and Kwan Yin Medaw is the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara himself. They are only mental images of Devis that have branched off from Avalokiteshvara.

The worship of Avalokiteshvara had already reached Myanmar during the Sri Ksetra period. At that time, Avalokiteshvara was worshipped in a male form, wearing a dhoti. The one called Kwan Yin Medaw is just a re-entry from the direction of China, wearing a htamein (female longyi).

 

Graha (Planet) Nat Worship

Graha (Planet) Nat worship also came to Myanmar from India. The origin of that Graha Nat worship was not India. The earliest Graha worship is found from the Babylonian era. I will explain a little.

The Sumerian people who had settled in the Mesopotamian region gradually declined from around 3,000 BCE due to mutual warfare.

Then, the Mesopotamian region fell under the control of the Semitic Amorite people. Those people founded the city of Babylon. They came to be called the Babylonian people after that city.

The Babylonian people continued to worship the Nats from the Sumerian culture. Those people looked at the positions of the planets in the sky and made predictions about the future.

It was believed that the five great planets in the sky—Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn—could influence the future destiny of human beings. Therefore, the five great planets were designated as five great gods and were worshipped and offered to.

The names of the days that the world's people use were born from their concept.

When the two luminaries, the sun and the moon, were added to the five great planets mentioned above, they became seven. The custom of worshipping these seven spread to Syria, and there a custom of worshipping one god per day emerged.

Because those seven gods were worshipped in a cycle of seven days, later the names of the Graha Nats became the names of the days. The day for worshipping the sun god was called Sun-day (Sunday), the day for worshipping the moon god was called Moon-day (Monday), and so on.

This concept spread and reached India. By the time it reached India, the magical powers of the Grahas had been enhanced. The Graha Nats were assigned places in the eight directions and given fiefdoms. Fanciful stories were invented.

The Graha Nats produced and modified by India are as many as nine. They are the Sun Graha, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Rahu, and Ketu Graha. Among them, Ketu is a name used to refer to omens and portents of the past.

That Ketu is of three types:

(1)   Earth Ketu: This refers to phenomena on the earth such as vapor rising and light shining.

(2)   Intermediate Ketu: This refers to omens from cities, caves, monasteries, pinnacles, and trees.

(3)   Sky Ketu: This refers to omens from the sky such as meteors falling, lunar eclipses, comets, and shooting stars.

It was believed that these omens could also cause changes in the destiny of human beings. People worshipped the nine Graha Nats to make them favorable.

That custom of worshipping the nine great Grahas spread from India to Myanmar. In the nine great Graha worship ceremony of the Bamar, the Buddha and eight Arahants were also included. It was created to be compatible with Buddhism.

Therefore, the Bamar also call it "nine-deity alms-giving." Some also call it "Graha-food offering ceremony."

This nine-deity alms-giving custom was not invented by the Bamar. It is said to have spread from Zimme (Chiang Mai) in Thailand.

In Myanmar, in some pagodas and stupas, Graha images and Graha posts are made either together with the Buddha image or within the pagoda compound. At one time, even at the base of the Shwedagon Pagoda, which is the pride of Myanmar, great Graha images were once erected. They were sights that made Buddhism look ugly.

The question of whether the Grahas in the sky can do good or bad to the human world and human beings is still being studied by modern scientists.

The concepts about the Grahas that were accepted in ancient times were merely speculative worship based on inference. The cultures related to the Grahas were also only legendary forms created through mental thought.

 

The Five Great Nats and the 21 Devis

In Myanmar, some individuals also worship the five great Nats and the 21 Devis. These Nats are also mostly Indian Nats.

In the Graha-food offering ceremony called the nine-deity alms-giving, five portions of rice are prepared for the five great Nats. Although the Bamar people frequently speak of the five great Nats, very few can accurately list them. The reason for this inability to say is that the counting methods are confusing.

Some count Thagyamin, the Sun Nat, Mahāpiṇṇe Nat, Viṣṇu Nat, and Kaṭe Nat.

Some count Parameśvara Nat, Sun Nat, Fire Nat, Viṣṇu Nat, and Daṇḍī Nat.

Some count Dhataraṭṭha, Virūpakkha, Virūḷhaka, Kuvera, and Parameśvara.

 

Buddhism And Other Deities

Some people take up the worship of Saraswati, Chandi, Parameśvarī, Mahāpīṭha, and the Ghora Mantra nat.

Some take up Parameśvarī, Mahāpīṭha, Vishnu, Chandi, and the Saraswati nat.

However, the "Nine Deities" teachers of the modern era have established and are worshipping Saraswati, Chandi, Parameśvarī, Mahāpīṭha, and the Ghora Mantra nat. If one studies the history of these five great deities, it is found that they are gods who are part of the Hindu religion. They have no connection whatsoever to Buddhism.

Among those who worship spirits in the world, there are also practices of grouping deities into sets of five Devis, twelve Devis, and twenty-one Devis for worship. Among these, the group of goddesses called the "Twenty-one Devis" is widespread in the world of esoteric sects. Practitioners of these sects divide these 21 figures into three groups.

Group (1) consists of 7 figures: Saraswati Devi, Canda Devi, Candi Devi, Cande Devi, Canda Devi, Kinnara Devi, and Maha Devi.

Group (2) consists of 7 figures: Saraswati Devi, Suja-may, Pan-myat-may, Thazin-may, Zati-may, Maṇimekhalā-may, and Irandathi-may.

Group (3) consists of 7 figures: Manohari-may, Irandathi Devi, Nagari Devi, Kinnara Devi, Saraswati Devi, Mahindra Devi, and Piya Devi.

Within these three groups, Saraswati is present in all three. Other goddesses are also repeated. Studying the names of these goddesses, one finds names from Buddhism, Hinduism, and the Burmese language. Some are also names that could not possibly be Pali names.

This group of goddesses is a confusing pantheon that has been assembled for worship by rather low-grade sect followers, based on names they have heard here and there.

They have organized people with the tempting lure that if one worships the committee of the 21 Devis, one can receive special benefits such as an abundance of fortune, stability of wealth and property, possession of glory and power, promotion in rank, an abundance of followers and attendants, the attainment of clairaudience and clairvoyance, and receiving help in times of need.

 

Worship of Indigenous Nats

Just as the Burmese people adopted and worshipped deities from India, they also created new spirits within their own country and worshipped them. The group of seven spirits, including the household nat called Mahagiri, were the earliest spirits created and worshipped by the Burmese.

The Burmese continued to create new spirits during the Pagan era, and by the end of the Pagan period, the number of spirits had reached 22. Afterwards, new spirits continued to be created, with 1 being added during the Pinya period, 9 during the Inwa period, and 5 during the Taungoo period. The total number of spirits reached 37. The Burmese call these spirits the "Outer 37 Nats."

After the Taungoo period, the creation of new spirits faded away. The nat masters also seemed to have no desire to increase the number of spirits beyond 37. Therefore, at the end of the Taungoo period, the registration of new nats was closed.

In the list of the Outer 37 Nats, with the exception of the nat Thagyamin (Indra), all are indigenous spirits. When comparing Burmese nats and Indian deities, there is a difference. The deities from India are spirits that descended from nature worship, and thus, inanimate objects were generally given a soul and worshipped as living beings.

The indigenous spirits of Myanmar, however, are spirits that were various historical figures from Burmese history. For the most part, those who became spirits were individuals from the royal chronicles who died violent, "green" deaths.

Furthermore, in the world of Burmese nats, there are also spirits called the "Inner 37 Nats." Among these spirits, 22 have Burmese names, so it is likely that they are also indigenous spirits.

The Burmese refer to the spirits enshrined within the walls of the Shwezigon Pagoda in Pagan as the "Inner 37 Nats." The spirit images placed outside the walls are called the "Outer 37 Nats."

In Myanmar, there are also many local spirits that are not included in the 37 Nats list. Spirits such as U Shin Gyi of the salt-water regions and Nam Kray are famous ones.

Currently, throughout Myanmar, there are spirits such as the village guardian, city guardian, and territory guardian in every locality. Various types of spirit shrines and pavilions have been built, and images of various forms have been sculpted for worship. Spirit festivals are held according to the locality.

Currently, the festival of the half-Indian, half-Ogre brother nats in the Taungbyone area, the festival of the Koe-ni nats in Pakhan, and others have become very widespread. During the days of the Koe-ni nat festival, in the eastern part of Pakhan, an order is enforced under the borrowed authority of U Min Kyaw, stating, "No other performances may be held; the nats do not like it." This is done with the intention of suppressing other events. It is merely a measure to ensure the nat festival is crowded.

Now, within the last decade or so, private nat worship and nat-propitiation ceremonies (nat kana pwe) have become fashionable. In almost every neighborhood, one can hear the unbearable sound of nat songs and nat drums blaring from loudspeakers placed on roofs and in trees.

Those who work with concentration are disturbed and cannot get their work done. These are merely degenerate cultural practices that cause trouble for the public under the pretext of freedom of worship.

The fact that nat festivals are becoming more crowded and nat-propitiation ceremonies more widespread is because the number of people who believe in and worship nats has increased. The reason why major nat festivals in Myanmar are crowded today is based on three classes of people. They are:

(1)   Those who are great pleasure-seekers,

(2)   Those who are very greedy,

(3)   Those who are very fearful.

The psychological afflictions mentioned above are based in these classes of people, allowing the nats to grow and thrive. Among these classes, numbers 2 and 3 should be examined. The people in class 2 worship and make offerings to the nats with the hope that their businesses and fortunes will prosper.

At this point, the words of anthropologists are worth remembering. Anthropologists have challenged the doctrine of a creator god by stating:

"The eternal God did not create man. It was man who created the eternal God."

Adapting that statement:

"Nats have no power over humans. It is only humans who have power over nats."
This is what should be said.

It is true. The reason nats exist is that people worship them. If humans stop worshipping them, the nats will surely disappear. What are called nats are merely psychological representations created by human thought.

This should be understood. When studying ancient history across the world, this same phenomenon will be observed.

The history of nat worship began around 5000 BC, and countless nats have emerged to this day. Leaving aside other countries, in India alone, over 330 million deities were created and worshipped. Nats proliferated as much as human imagination could conceive. These nats only existed as long as people believed in and worshipped them. When people stopped believing and worshipping, the nats also vanished.

Therefore, it would not be an exaggeration to say that nats are things created by humans. The nats created by humans have to depend on humans for their existence. That is why it was said that humans hold power over nats.

There are also those who worship nats because they believe the nats can cause them harm. There are also those who appease them. This belief is also an irrational one, created and empowered by humans themselves. In reality, if one examines it, these psychological creations, these so-called nats, can do nothing to bring happiness or cause suffering to humans. One should be able to analyze and decide this with right thought, right view, and a rational mindset.

 

Worship of Bodetaw and Medaw

In Myanmar, there are also those who engage in sectarian practices and take on the titles of Bodetaw and Medaw. These individuals are those who have adopted the title of Bodetaw by practicing esoteric disciplines that came from India. Their followers are numerous, believing that these Bodetaws are perfected beings, possessors of supernatural power (siddhi), and capable of saving people from their suffering.

In Myanmar, there are also individuals who became famous as Bodetaws. These figures include Bo Bo Aung, Bo Min Gaung, Shin Ajjagona, the Bame Monk, and the Yatkanzin Taung Sayadaw.

Even in the modern era, sectarian teachers who act as Bodetaws or work to become Bodetaws continue to emerge in Myanmar. There are those who take on the title of Bodetaw themselves. There are also those who do not take the title but engage in the work of a Bodetaw as a master of an esoteric sect.

Some of these sectarian teachers worship various figures such as Bodetaw, Bwaredaw, Medaw, Sadhus, Saraswati, the 21 Devis, the Inner 37 Nats, the Outer 37 Nats, perfected masters, and spirit guides.

Since Myanmar is a Buddhist country, some of these sectarian teachers take refuge under the shadow of Buddhism to carry out their sectarian activities. They incorporate the Buddha's teachings (Dhamma desanā) into their practices for attaining supernatural power (siddhi) and make use of them. They are tarnishing the pure Buddhist religion.

Some teachers who call themselves Bodetaw build "elemental pagodas" (dat-phayar), claiming that the elements have settled there. They also give these pagodas names that include esoteric terminology related to siddhi. They use terms like Se, Aung, and Kat-kyaw.

Some sectarian teachers, though their work has no connection to the study (pariyatti) or practice (paṭipatti) of Buddhism, clamorously proclaim it as a great work of religious propagation (sāsanā) that shakes the nation. They also have a substantial following of disciples who call themselves members of the "disciple sect" (thawaka-gaing).

These include:

• Modern intellectuals with weak thinking,
• Wealthy business people with poor reasoning,
• The gullible masses with little knowledge,
• The greedy who hope for a life of fantasy.

They come in all sorts of varieties.

Those who engage in these sectarian practices follow the instructions of their great teacher without deviation. They listen to everything he says. They do whatever he asks. By following him in this way, they believe that various supernatural powers and blessings will flourish and grow.

These people regard their teacher as a great master of supernatural power (siddhi). They believe that by supporting and donating to this great master, they will receive immediate, tangible benefits. Therefore, wealthy business people donate large sums of money in offering. The poor also squeeze out what they can afford and donate.

The great sectarian teachers use the money they receive to build "elemental pagodas." They worship images of siddhi masters. They make various kinds of nat images. They sculpt images of weikza (adepts). They cast images of Bodetaws. They create planetary figures. In this way, the headquarters of these sects become like fantastical museums. They have become impressive displays that create a sense of awe in the minds of the ordinary masses.

Because they are able to create such impressive displays, the sectarian teachers become even more powerful. Just as the power of the gods in the Egyptian and Sumerian eras grew because of public support, the power of these sectarian teachers grows because many people support them.

Because of the widespread support of the people, these sectarian teachers gain the cintāmayasiddhi, the power to accomplish whatever they imagine. They gain the dhanasiddhi, the power to acquire gold, silver, and gems. These are siddhis that they acquire because people make it happen for them.

However, as for the type of siddhi that allows one to burrow through the earth, they do not have the ability of even an earthworm. As for the knowledge called ākāsasiddhi, which allows one to fly in the sky, they cannot do it even as much as a single mosquito. As for the kāyasiddhi that makes one invulnerable to swords, spears, and guns to achieve such physical siddhi is a distant dream. These are great masters of siddhi who cannot even withstand the prick of a thorn.

People do not consider the true situation. They are unable to reflect on the correct principles. They cling to the belief that the Bodetaw sect leaders will provide for them. They rush to approach them with the greedy view that they can make them prosperous overnight. In reality, the Bodetaw sect leaders are not people who can create another person's destiny. People can only create their own destiny.

And yet, by mixing in and accepting undesirable beliefs, they waste their time going to the Bodetaw. They waste their time going to the Medaw. They do not know how to use the value of time correctly. They waste time with excessive hope and action. They yearn for a life of excessive thought. They desire a life of getting something for nothing.

They misunderstand the relationship between work and the results of work. Although they call themselves Buddhists who accept Kammassakatā Sammādiṭṭhi (the right view that beings are owners of their karma), they are rotting their time away with Tantric-like psychological and imaginary activities.

 

Worship of Buddha Images in Royal Attire

Although later literary works state that Buddha images existed during the Buddha's lifetime, historical researchers have determined that Buddha images were first created around the 1st century AD.

Researchers' findings are the more acceptable of the two propositions.

Before the 1st century AD, Buddha images had not yet appeared. Symbols of the Buddha such as the Dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree, the golden throne, the footprints, and the lotus motif were created and worshipped.

The regions where Buddha images were first created were Gandhara and Mathura, where the Kushan dynasty flourished. Originally, the artists of Mathura created statues depicting Jain ascetics in meditative postures. Buddhists then imitated these forms and began to create images of the Buddha.

Just as the followers of the Theravada school created images of the Buddha, followers of Mahayana Buddhism also created and worshipped statues of their Bodhisattvas, or Buddhas-to-be. The images created and worshipped by the Mahayanists were of Bodhisattva deities, so they were created with ornaments.

The images created and worshipped by Theravada Buddhists were depicted only in monastic robes without ornaments. The early images from Gandhara and Mathura are found only wearing monastic robes.

Later, Mahayana Buddhism spread throughout the country. It also reached Myanmar during the Pyu era. With the arrival of the Mahayanists, the images of Bodhisattva deities that they worshipped also arrived.

The Bodhisattva deities, when observed, are found to have varied appearances. The reason they are not uniform is that the artists who created the statues did so according to the royal attire of the kings of their own era, whom they had seen.

This is why images of Buddhas in royal attire are seen with various kinds of adornments.

The form of Buddha images, in whichever era they are made, cannot be altered. They must be depicted wearing the monastic robe. They cannot cause a change in feeling for people.

Bodhisattva deity figures, however, can be sculpted in a variety of novel forms, which creates a change in feeling. Because of this desire for novelty, it is possible that Theravada Buddhists created Buddha images with royal attire such as a crown and a sash.

Today in Myanmar, some people create and worship Buddha images with royal attire. They are sculpted with novel appearances and adorned with ornaments. This style of image is often called "Jambupati-style." It is said that it came into being based on the story of the taming of King Jambupati.

When one studies the story of the taming of King Jambupati, it is not a solid narrative from the Theravada Piṭaka. It is a story included in the Tathāgata-udāna-dīpanī, a text written by the Dhipayin Sayadaw during the Konbaung dynasty. This story did not exist in earlier times. However, images sculpted with royal attire existed even before that time. Therefore, the explanation based on the Jambupati story is no longer valid.

Some also contrive an answer, saying that this style of image was created based on the idea that the Lord Buddha is the King of Dhamma (Dhammarāja).

Regarding this Buddha in royal attire, scholars of the Konbaung period were also interested. This was especially so when the great Maha Myat Muni image arrived. The explanations of the Monywe Zetawun Sayadaws regarding the style of this image are also found.

The explanation given by the Sayadaws was merely an attempt to provide an answer because a question had been raised. They could not give a precise and certain answer. And there was no answer to give. Researchers, however, have confirmed that they were made in imitation of the Bodhisattva deity figures of the Mahayanists. Based on this conclusion, it seems that the images in royal attire are not related to Theravada Buddhism.

However, today in Myanmar, Buddha images made with novel appearances, wearing crowns and sashes, are being worshipped. The question of whether one should or should not worship these images has become a matter of serious discussion. Some say one should not. Others say one should. It is a matter of people expressing their own views and opinions.

To decide on this matter is extremely difficult. If one decides they should not be worshipped, what is to be done with the famous images in royal attire in Myanmar today? What attitude should be taken?

And if one says they should be worshipped, then these images are ones adopted from the Mahayana sect. If it is appropriate to worship these images, does that not imply that it is also appropriate to worship Mahayana Buddhism?

Because the Theravada Buddhists of old acted carelessly and without consideration, it has become difficult to find a solution to the problem of the Buddha image in royal attire.

Be that as it may, for followers of Theravada Buddhism, it is best to create and worship Buddha images in the attire of the Buddha, which is the monastic robe.

 

Worship of Dakkhiṇasākhā and Other Images

In Myanmar, the worship of the Dakkhiṇasākhā Buddha image is very fashionable. There are also intricate stories associated with this image.

Dakkhiṇasākhā in the Burmese language means "southern branch." In the 3rd century BC, Shin Mahinda and the Theri Saṅghamittā went to Sri Lanka to propagate the Buddhist teachings.

For the people of the island of Sri Lanka to worship, they cut the right southern branch of the great Bodhi tree and planted it on the island. Images carved from the wood of this Bodhi tree are said to be the origin of the Dakkhiṇasākhā Buddha.

In Myanmar, during the reign of King Mohnyin, who ascended the throne in the year 788 of the Burmese Era (1426 AD), over 300 Dakkhiṇasākhā Buddha images arrived from the island of Sri Lanka, and they were revered and worshipped by monks, laypeople, officials, and the public. From that time on, the worship of the Dakkhiṇasākhā Buddha image became fashionable.

Initially, Dakkhiṇasākhā images were sculpted with smooth proportions, just like other Buddha images. What distinguished them from other images was only the lotus pedestal they sat upon. This incident of sitting on a lotus pedestal, however, is again intertwined with the Mahayana sect. In Mahayana scriptures, it is written as follows:

When King Kosala and Queen Mallikā came to see the Buddha, they arrived at a time when he was not present. Shin Moggallāna searched for him with his psychic powers and found the Buddha in a state of meditative absorption (jhāna) on a large lotus flower in the Anotatta Lake, where five kinds of lotuses were blooming. The nine nats who guard the lake were also shading the Buddha, each with a lotus umbrella.

Having seen this event, Shin Moggallāna related it to King Kosala and Queen Mallikā. The king and queen were filled with faith, imagining the form in which the Buddha was abiding. They requested permission from Shin Moggallāna, saying they wished to create an image of this form for worship. Having received permission, the king and queen worshipped the image of the Buddha seated on a lotus, it is said.

According to this account, it can be said that the Dakkhiṇasākhā images were created and worshipped according to Mahayana concepts.

Later, those who acted as sect leaders imaginatively expanded upon and created various forms of the Dakkhiṇasākhā image. They incorporated designs such as making nine mushroom-like marks on the Buddha image. It was claimed that if one worshipped this image, one's fortune would increase, business would be good, one would be promoted in rank, be free from danger, be safe from fire, and all kinds of supernatural powers (siddhi) could be accomplished. Thus, it became an image exploited by sect leaders.

The worst creation is the form of the Buddha image itself. The image's form is sculpted as if by someone who does not know sculpture, with ugly features like a potbelly and a short neck. The Lord Buddha is complete with the major and minor marks of a great man, and there is nothing to find fault with.

He possessed a beautiful physical form. Creating and worshipping such terribly formed images is a destruction of the Buddha's admirable and lovely physical appearance.

Today in Myanmar, Buddha images are created and established for worship in various forms and with various concepts.

• Buddha images with moustaches,
• Buddha images with glasses,

• Buddha images with moles,
• Buddha images with bumps on the forehead,
• Buddha images wearing rings,
• Buddha images with snakes wrapped around them,
• Buddha images flanked by elephants and horses, and so on, are being made in various ways.

In some images, four small standing Buddha figures are incorporated onto the two knees and two shoulders of the main seated image. These are images cast in plastic. Looking at that image, one might mistakenly think it is performing a circus act, as it is so ugly and misshapen.

On some pagoda platforms, imaginary figures popular with the public, such as Bo Bo Aung and Bo Min Gaung, have been created, which are shameful acts for Buddhism.

The matters presented here are the prominent forms of worship that are mixed into Theravada. There are also countless minor matters that are being practiced inconspicuously.

 

Worship of Shin Upagutta

Among the forms of worship in Theravada Buddhism, it is found that concepts from the Mahayana sect have been mixed in and accepted. Among these concepts, the worship of Shin Upagutta is at the forefront.

The biography of the elder Shin Upagutta is a story created from the Divyāvadāna, a text used by the Mahayana sect. The elder Shin Upagutta was famous and renowned under various titles such as Indagutta, Assagutta, Tissanāga, Upaguttatissanāga, and Āgatacodayamuni.

The elder Shin Upagutta is not mentioned extensively in the Theravada Piṭaka and its commentaries. The story of this elder was presented in the Mahāvaṃsa, written by Shin Mahānāma around 800 years after the Buddha's Parinibbāna. Shin Mahānāma extracted and presented it from the Mahayana text, the Divyāvadāna.

Taking the words from the Mahāvaṃsa, the authors who composed Burmese chronicles also presented it. In major chronicles, the Loka-paññatti, and the Jinatthapakāsanī, the biography of this elder was copied and included. Only then did the Burmese mind accept the new story of Shin Upagutta. He became widely known on the lips of the Burmese as an elder of great power.

The elder Shin Upagutta resides in a bronze palace in the southern ocean. It is imaginatively believed that he is still alive today. Therefore, the Burmese create an image of Shin Upagutta, float it on a raft, and hold offering ceremonies.

It is also believed that Shin Upagutta can protect against dangers such as storms, rain, floods, and lightning strikes. In Myanmar, when holding a novitiation or donation ceremony, an image of Shin Upagutta is placed at the offering table and worshipped to ensure freedom from the dangers of wind and rain.

In Myanmar, within some pagodas built in later eras, small chambers for Shin Upagutta are often included inside the umbrella (hti). This is to ensure freedom from dangers such as lightning strikes.

In later times, the elder Shin Upagutta fell into the hands of those who acted as sect leaders and once again became an object of exploitation for their psychological delusions. Not only Shin Upagutta, but also elders like Shin Mahā Kassapa were included. These elders were grouped together and called the "Four Dead and the Four Living Saints." These eight elders are also accepted as those who have passed away and those who are still living.

The following elders are included in the list of the Four Living Saints:

(1)   Shin Upagutta resides in a bronze palace in the southern ocean.

(2)   Shin Khemara resides in a bronze palace in the western ocean.

(3)   Shin Bhadda resides in a golden palace in the northern ocean.

(4)   Shin Akkosāra resides in a golden palace in the eastern ocean.
Since the four elders were allotted four different locations, for the people of Myanmar, only Shin Upagutta can be worshipped. Because there is an ocean only in the south, only Shin Upagutta has become the venerable one responsible for the people of Myanmar.

The following elders are included in the list of the Four Dead Saints:

(1)   Shin Mahā Kassapa is on a stone slab on Mount Vebhāra.

(2)   Shin Mahā Saṃsāra is on Mount Uttama.

(3)   Shin Upekkha is on Mount Makula.

(4)   Shin Dhammasāra is on Mount Makula.

People from Myanmar place importance on the deceased Shin Mahā Kassapa, whose body is at Kassapa's resting place, and often go there.

The issue of Shin Mahā Kassapa is also complicated. A story was created that Shin Mahā Kassapa, the leader of the Ari sect during the Pagan era, went to that place and passed away.

It is also said that the great disciple of the Buddha, the elder Shin Mahā Kassapa who presided over the First Buddhist Council, came to that place and entered Parinibbāna.

In truth, the resting place of the body of Kassapa is not related to the Ari sect leader, Shin Kassapa. Nor is it the place where the elder Shin Mahā Kassapa of the First Council entered Parinibbāna. It is merely a replica of the resting place of the body of Kassapa, created by finding a geographical location similar to Mount Vebhāra, where the great Shin Mahā Kassapa entered Parinibbāna, for the purpose of imitation and worship.

Is it not that by looking at the events described in the Buddhist texts and searching for the geographical locations, the Buddha's footprints were also created and worshipped in this manner?

In summary, the elder Shin Upagutta is not a figure from the Theravada Piṭaka. His biography is merely one that has been excerpted from a book of the Mahayana sect.

 

 

Chapter (2)

Beliefs Mixed into Theravada

Myanmar is a country that accepts and believes in the teachings of Theravada Buddhism. The Theravada teachings show the practical path that humans should and can attain. They do not show imaginative concepts that are impossible and unattainable. The Lord Buddha also did not teach imaginative doctrines.

The Burmese people have also read literature that was imaginatively conceived and created, which is not part of the Buddha's teachings. There are also those who accept and believe in them. These literary works were, for the most part, brought over from India.

The Burmese people have had contact with India since the early ages. They acquired much technology from the Indians. Throughout the lineage of Burmese kings, contact with India was never broken. The Burmese have been Burmanizing Indian culture.

During the reign of King Bodawpaya, he sent envoys to India and had them bring back literature that did not yet exist in Myanmar. The acquired literature was then translated into the Burmese language. Through such means, Indian ethics, arts, and beliefs spread to the Burmese.

In the past, the Burmese accepted things with the attitude that "If it's a text from India, it must be correct." They separated the imaginative beliefs from India into a category called "worldly knowledge" and believed in them. The miscellaneous beliefs brought over from India to Myanmar number in the thousands.

 

Belief in the Gandhārī Arts

Among the beliefs that came from India, the belief called the Gandhārī path, which arose from hoping for a strange and wondrous kind of life, is also included.

The term "Gandhārī arts" refers to the arts that emerged from the Gandhāra region of India. In another sense, it refers to the arts formulated by a hermit named Gandhāra. The Gandhārī path is divided into:

• The Lesser Gandhārī path,
• The Greater Gandhārī path.

The Lesser Gandhārī path refers to sorcerers, witchcraft practitioners, and practitioners of the lower path who are skilled in charms, incantations, spells, hexes, and amulets, based on spirits such as the 40 great demons, 99 witches, Kumbhaṇḍas, Yakkhas, and Gandharvas.

The Greater Gandhārī path refers to the arts that are performed with higher spirits, starting from the goddess Saraswati, the 21 Devis, the 5 great spirit kings, the four guardian spirits of the world, and the Bodetaw Indra. It aligns with the right-hand Tantric school.

The main requirement of the Gandhārī path is to achieve the state of a vijjā (adept). It is believed that upon reaching the state of a vijjā, various supernatural powers (siddhi) are accomplished. Their literature indicates 10 types of siddhi.

(1)   Cintāmayasiddhi = The ability to make whatever one imagines come to pass.

(2)   Udakasiddhi = The ability to walk on the surface of water.

(3)   Pathavīsiddhi = The ability to move through the earth; the ability to magically shorten distances.

(4)   Dhanasiddhi = The ability to obtain gold, silver, and gems as desired.

(5)   Āyusiddhi = The ability to live a long life and remain youthful.

(6)   Ākāsasiddhi = The ability to travel through the sky.

(7)   Ārogyasiddhi = Freedom from sickness and disease.

(8)   Kāyasiddhi = Invulnerability to swords, spears, and guns.

(9)   Piyasiddhi = Being loved by all beings.

(10) Iddhisiddhi = The ability to create various things through psychic power.

Since the aforementioned siddhis are extremely tempting lures for humans, they eagerly anticipate achieving the state of a vijjā. As anticipated, they search for and practice the path to becoming a vijjā. The path to becoming a vijjā is found in their literature.

It is said that those who become vijjās achieve this by practicing the following four types:

(1)   Padā-vijjā = One who performs rituals with solidified mercury.

(2)   Osa-vijjā = One who has achieved siddhi through medicine.

(3)   Thaṃ-vijjā = One who performs rituals with alchemically perfected iron.

(4)   Iṃ-vijjā = One who has achieved siddhi through charms, mantras, etc.

The aforementioned four types are called the four types of vijjā. The Burmese also call a vijjā a Zawgyi. The original term for Zawgyi is Yogi. Yogi was altered and came to be called Gyaw-gyi, then Zawgyi.

The Zawgyi is a figure familiar to the people of Myanmar. A figure dressed in reddish-brown clothes tailored in the style of a Punjabi suit, holding a staff called a medicinal staff, can be seen throughout Myanmar. This type of figure is also called a htwat-yat-pauk (perfected one). There are two types of htwat-yat-pauk figures: the one who perfects after death, and the one who perfects while living.

It is believed that the one who perfects after death passes away and then becomes perfected. It is believed that the one who perfects while living does not die but transforms into an invisible body and continues to live for many years, practicing the Dhamma.

In Myanmar, there have been those who have gone on to become htwat-yat-pauk. However, it has not been heard that they have become perfected while living. In fact, all of them have had to die just like most other people.

This state of being a vijjā, a zawgyi, a perfected master with siddhi, and so on, is not a type of existence that is actually possible in the human world. It is only a type of existence conceived by a contrived and fantastical imagination. There are those who work with the hope that they might obtain this fantastical state of being. There are also those who are content and pleased with it. These individuals are like people searching for a treasure chest from a dream.

 

Belief in Astrology

Among the beliefs mixed with Theravada Buddhism, belief in astrology is also included. Belief in astrology had already reached Myanmar by the Sri Ksetra period. These astrological texts were brought by Brahmin priests from India, and from them, the Burmese inherited them.

During the reigns of the Burmese kings, there were many who practiced astrology. Among those who practiced astrology, Theravada monks were also included. Although the monks did not make a living by telling fortunes, they studied the art of astrology as a worldly skill to be known.

The Lord Buddha forbade the practice of telling fortunes. However, some monks ignored the Vinaya teachings and sought their livelihood by telling fortunes. During the reign of King Dhammazedi, action had to be taken to not keep astrologer monks within the Sāsana (the Buddhist order).

The astrological texts emerged between 1500 and 1000 BC, before the Buddha appeared. They are texts that were composed while the Aryan people were living in the upper Sarasvati River region. Originally, there were three types of Vedic texts. Later, there came to be four. The four types of Vedas are as follows:

(1)   Rigveda: A text that shows how calamities and disasters may occur by observing eclipses of the sun, moon, and the constellations.

(2)   Yajurveda: A text that describes methods of worshipping the planets and stars and performing rituals (yadayā) to be free from present and future dangers.

(3)   Samaveda: A text that predicts good and bad fortune by dividing the path of the sun and moon into 12 zodiac signs, observing which planet is stationary in which sign, and then analyzing it by degrees, minutes, and further subdivisions.

(4)   Atharvaveda: A text that received its name because it was composed by the sage Atharva. It describes rituals such as lighting fires and chanting mantras for the destruction of others.

The Buddhist Piṭaka and Pali dictionaries state that the three types of Vedas were composed by ten sages, starting with the sage Aṭṭhaka. The Vedic texts composed by the sages were, for the most part, merely records of psychological afflictions, written based on the beliefs of the people of ancient times.

The Burmese refer to the Indian texts they have accepted as worldly texts. Most of them are texts composed by sages. Many authors of these texts, such as Vākya, Vagga, Harita, and Vyāsa, are found to be sages.

In later times, the number of texts written by sages became so numerous that their names could no longer be listed. They came to be referred to as the works of the "eighty thousand teacher-sages," without attribution, and whatever they saw fit was written.

Among the works of the sages, texts on grammar, prosody, and so on, are beneficial. However, the majority of the texts are works that the sages studied and composed as a way to find something to do when they had nothing else to do.

One should not think that by saying this, one is insulting the texts of the sages. When one studies the life story of the sages, one will understand this statement. One should study this story a little.

In the customs of the Hindus of ancient India, the code of conduct called "Āśrama" was also included. Āśrama refers to the duties to be performed according to one's age in life. Age is divided into four parts:

(1)   First age: One must seek and acquire all kinds of knowledge.

(2)   Second age: One must establish a household, seek a livelihood, and accumulate wealth.

(3)   Third age: One must entrust one's business to one's children and go forth into the forest with one's wife. (This refers to the time when one's hair turns white, skin wrinkles, or one has grandchildren.)

(4)   Fourth age: One must abandon even the wife who came with one and continue to practice as a hermit, alone.

According to ancient Indian custom, when one became old, one had to don the robes of a hermit and live alone in the forest. The presence of many sages in the Jātaka stories of the Piṭaka are characters drawn from that custom.

 

The Sages' Pastime Scriptures

Since the sages had to live alone in the great forest without companions, it was bound to be boring. They also had no occupation. They had nothing to do. Therefore, the sages had to find things that interested them to pass the time. They had to find substitutes for their senses to find relief.

Some sages controlled their minds with practices such as mindfulness of the in-breath and out-breath. They attained mental tranquility and found peace.

This practice later entered into Hinduism. The practice called "Yoga" in Hinduism is a discipline based on mindfulness of the in-breath and out-breath.

Some sages noted eclipses of the sun, moon, and so on, and compared them with events in the human world. When they coincided with events in the human world, they made records, saying that if this sign appears, that is what tends to happen.

Some sages studied roots and leaves for illnesses. They recorded what they found. Some sages applied mathematics to record the good and bad fortunes of human life. Some sages sought out and created objects of worship. They created and wrote down hymns and mantras. They kept records.

In this way, by engaging in various activities with interest, many codes of conduct and practices emerged. Many objects of belief appeared. That is why it must be said that the texts written by the sages were written as a way to find something to do when they had nothing else to do.

The texts written by the sages were, for the most part, not arts and sciences studied in a scientific manner. They were writings that were recorded by taking ordinary coincidences as a basis and believing them to be established facts, so one should not believe in them with unwavering conviction.

For example, one should look at predictions based on solar and lunar eclipses. In ancient times, the eclipsing of the sun and moon was made into a major issue, and predictions were made that were considered extremely frightening. In truth, in the universe where the sun, moon, and earth group exists, this will continue to happen every year. There is nothing to be afraid of, nothing to be alarmed about; it is a natural occurrence. The predictions of ancient times have become meaningless.

The practice of telling fortunes through astrology is also just one of the many imaginative records among the psychological records of the sages. Astrology is a practice that attempts to explain the destiny of human life by playing with the four mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

In ancient India, the Brahmins were the leaders of religion. They took responsibility for and carried out religious duties. Brahmins who were skilled in religion served as royal teachers and chief priests.

Brahmins who were not employed by the king, however, had to make a living as astrologers or with other skills.

Astrologers have brought the entire life of a human being under the dominion of astrological numbers. They have even approached and utilized the letters of the alphabet that people use by associating them with planetary spirits.

It is said that letters such as Ka and Kha are owned by planets like the Moon. When and by whom were the sounds of the alphabet distributed and claimed by the planetary spirits? A question for which no one seems to be able to provide an answer.

People consult astrologers and perform remedial rituals (yadayā) with the obsessive assumption that the art of astrology can alter their good and bad fortune. Whether the yadayā is successful or not is unknown, but what is tangible is the loss of money.

People believe in a whole host of miscellaneous things to be avoided and observed, such as auspicious and inauspicious days (Rājayoga, Byatitsu), unlucky periods (Vāramittu), compatible marriage partners, friends, enemies, elemental compatibilities, auspicious directions for fortune, for spirits, for travel, days for bathing, days for washing hair, auspicious days for doctors, and auspicious days for travel.

People worry that their lives and experiences will be affected. This worry has weakened people's innate intellectual capacity. When they hear that something might adversely affect their lives, they dare not do anything. They can no longer reason whether it is logical or not.

Because of the saying "It is not good to travel by water on a Friday," water travel and shipping businesses are delayed. Because of the saying "Monday is never done in one go," people tend to postpone things.

In Myanmar, the sayings, poems, and texts created by astrologers that reinforce these psychological afflictions are too numerous to read, too endless to recite.

Some people in Myanmar have also come to believe in a fear of the number 13. They believe that the number 13 is a number that does not bring good fortune and are reluctant to accept it.

This fear is a concept that arose from a story in the biography of Christ. It was first a belief accepted by Christians. It has nothing to do with Buddhism. Now it has spread to the East as well. People are terrified of it out of confusion and hearsay. They are unable to see the truth that a number is just a symbol that indicates a quantity.

When a people's beliefs are intensely superstitious, it becomes a hindrance to progress. It becomes an obstacle to human freedom.

A nation, a country, if it is obsessed with psychological beliefs, will lead to the decline of the people and the decay of the country.

 

Remnants of Nāga Worship Beliefs

The practice of Nāga worship no longer exists in Myanmar today. It completely disappeared during the purification of worship during the reign of King Anawrahta.

Before Anawrahta, Nāga worship flourished in Myanmar. If one looks at the early Burmese chronicles, symbols of Nāga worship can be found.

In the Burmese chronicles, it is said that the mother of King Pyusawhti was a Nāga princess. Queen Besandi of King Duttabaung was also said to be the daughter of a Nāga king. One should understand that these people were members of a Nāga-worshipping community.

Nāga worship was at its peak during the reign of King Nyaung-U Sawrahan. This king had a large Nāga image made in his cucumber field. He promoted the worship of the Nāga, saying that it was superior to humans.

When the reign of King Anawrahta arrived, Nāga worship disappeared. In India, however, Nāga worship still exists today. The custom of Nāga worship also came from India.

The founders of Nāga worship were the Dravidian people of India. They established the great Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BC. These people worshipped trees, forests, and mountains.

Furthermore, they created images of the snake, claiming that this creature was the lord of the earth, and worshipped them. The snake is called Nāga. From that time on, Nāga worship flourished. In India, the followers of the Nāga religion were a powerful force.

The followers of the Nāga religion also took pride in being of the Nāga race and called themselves the "Nāga race." The ruler who governed the Nāga race was called the Nāga king.

This is just like how spirit worshippers call themselves spirit race (spirit sons and daughters). One can understand that in ancient literature, terms like spirit son, spirit daughter, Nāga king, and Nāga queen were names used to praise the religion they worshipped.

Later, the doctrine of Nāga worship spread to Southeast Asia, wherever the Dravidian people reached.

Although Nāga worship has disappeared in Myanmar, concepts related to the Nāga are still believed. It is said that the Nāga changes the direction of its head four times a year.

The Nāga's head turns to the west during the months of Tabaung, Tagu, and Kason. It turns to the north during Nayon, Waso, and Wagaung. It turns to the east during Tawthalin, Thadingyut, and Tazaungmon. It is said that it turns to the south during Nadaw, Pyatho, and Tabodwe.

One must not enter the Nāga's mouth. One must not go against the Nāga's scales. If one does, one is liable to encounter bad luck. Only by going along the Nāga's belly will one be lucky and encounter happiness and prosperity. With this concept, people often wait for the Nāga to be facing the right way when changing residences or traveling.

Now, those with modern thinking no longer accept this concept. Government employees cannot wait for the Nāga to be facing the right way when they are transferred. Believing in the direction of the Nāga is not feasible. They have to move without delay.

However, rural folk who still accept the old beliefs continue to stand firm, supported by the old, worn-out saying, "Do not try to deceive the spirits and the Nāga."

 

Belief in Omens, Portents, etc.

In Myanmar, belief in omens and portents is also very common. The things that have been made into objects of belief are also numerous. If one looks at the texts on omens and portents, it seems that every movement of things in the natural world has been incorporated into them. Countless scenarios for prediction have been created.

Great figures and lay scholars such as the Maung Htaung Sāsanabaing and Maha Dhamma Thingyan have also written texts like the Neikbeittaka Withzani and spread these psychological afflictions.

Thus, the mental disposition of the people has become afflicted with the disease of being obsessed with omens and reading portents.

These beliefs in omens and portents are also, for the most part, beliefs that have spread from India. They are known to be a tradition of texts authored by the Brahmins.

Among the practices of the Hindu doctrine, there is a practice called "Shanti." This practice is the act of performing remedial rituals to ensure freedom from danger when one encounters a bad omen or portent.

A fire that suddenly goes out in a lamp lit in the house, a gecko making a sound, a gecko chirping, having a bad dream, an owl landing on the house, an unlucky bird call, a wild animal entering the village—such events are considered bad omens and portents.

At such times, Brahmin priests are invited, and after donating offerings to them, they must recite Tantric and Mantric verses. It is believed that only by such recitation will dangers be averted. This is the belief of the Hindu Brahmins.

Here, the Burmese people use the terms for omens and portents interchangeably. In Burmese dictionaries, the terms atīt and nimit are defined as follows:

Atīt is defined as: "A sign that can make known an event that will happen in a future time; a preceding event or sign of something that will happen in the future, etc."

Nimit is defined as: "A symbol or sign that can make known in advance what will be good, bad, what will happen, what will be destroyed, etc."

If one studies these definitions, their meanings are found to be similar. In truth, atīt and nimit should have a distinction. They were used separately only because there is a distinction. In the author's opinion, atīt refers to an irrational concept. Nimit, however, is based on both rational and irrational aspects.

To clarify, you may have seen or heard of texts called dream interpretation guides. Various kinds of predictive statements are made, such as "if you dream this, that will happen."

Almost everyone dreams. They have good dreams. They also have bad dreams. A good dream is a good omen. A bad dream is a bad omen.

Predictions are made about good and bad outcomes by looking at whether the omen is good or bad. Such predictions of omens are merely irrational statements. It is not possible that they will be correct even if they predict the result of a dream.

In the Burmese chronicles, stories about the results of dreams are found. These are likely records based on the obsessive beliefs of ancient times. Here, one should not argue by citing the sixteen dreams of King Kosala. The Lord Buddha was explaining the natural course of human behavior through the lens of King Kosala's dreams.

If one reads the Burmese chronicles, it is a custom to show omens every time a Burmese king passes away. These omens were likely ones that were observed and written down after the king's death. Some may also be the creations of the chroniclers.

The chroniclers state that when King Anawrahta was about to pass away, bees swarmed the royal audience hall, and so on. The chroniclers who could record such a minor event as bees swarming were unable to write about where the body of the great King Anawrahta ended up.

A nimit, however, can be rational and true. It can also be an irrational nimit. The Buddha-to-be saw the four signs: an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and an ascetic.

Because of these signs, he was struck with a sense of urgency and renounced the world. He became a Buddha. This nimit is rational. It produced a true result. This year, the rains are good, and the crops are plentiful. The rain is a good nimit that the crops would be plentiful.

A child is intelligent. He is diligent. To read the nimit that this child will be a good student is rational. It can be correct. These are natural signs and portents.

Furthermore, there are many predictions of portents that are unnatural and irrational. For example, predictions based on the portent of an earthquake. Lyrical verses predicting what will happen if an earthquake strikes on a Sunday, and so on, have been composed. These predictions are ones made by the citizens of a country where earthquakes strike only occasionally. For a country like Japan, where earthquakes are constantly happening, they are of no use at all.

In the texts predicting omens and portents, there are numerous kinds, such as portents of clouds, portents of comets, portents of bird calls, portents of mice gnawing, portents of termite mounds appearing, portents of bees swarming, portents of birds nesting, portents of solar halos, and portents of lunar halos.

These concepts, obsessed with omens and portents, are also beliefs that endanger the mental freedom and physical development of human beings. The Lord Buddha also rejected these omens and portents and preached against them.

 

Belief in Chanting Mantras

The chanting of hymns and mantras is a practice that is fashionable today. There are more than ten magazines and journals that give prominence to hymns and mantras. Under the banner of Buddhism, they give prominence to stories about Bodetaws, Medaws, and powerful hymns and mantras. They write that by chanting mantras, one's business and wealth will increase, and one's sickness and ailments will be cured. They even write that cancer can be cured. One might see them write that even AIDS will be cured next.

The chanting of hymns and mantras is a custom of the Hindu Brahmins. When Brahmins are about to undertake a task, they must recite a type of mantra called the Gayatri about ten times.

At sunrise and sunset, they must also recite the mantra. It is said that if one recites it a thousand times, all demerit will be cleansed and disappear.

When Hindu Brahmins recite hymns and mantras, they must place the syllable "Om" at the beginning and recite. This syllable is a recitation that combines the three letters A, U, and M. The letter 'A' refers to the god Vishnu. The letter 'U' refers to the god Shiva. The letter 'M' refers to the god Brahma. In order to include the three great gods at the same time, when they are combined and recited, it becomes "Om." It is pronounced as "Aum." In the Sanskrit language, it is written as "Oṃ."

These hymns and mantras that begin with "Om" were taken and used by the followers of the Mahayana Tantra school. This recitation of "Om" also spread to Myanmar. When the Burmese recite hymns and mantras, they begin with "Om" and recite. In truth, the "Om" mantra has absolutely no connection with Buddhism.

In Myanmar, the practice of chanting hymns and mantras also spread from India, a fact that cannot be denied. Just as the Hindu Brahmins believe in the power of their hymns and mantras, the Burmese also believe in them. Before Anawrahta, the Ari monks used the power of mantras in various ways. The concept that by chanting a mantra, all demerit can be cleansed and disappear is also the same as the concept of the Hindu Brahmins.

Later, even the verses of the Buddha's teachings came to be recited with "Om" at the beginning. They did not see or understand that the syllable "Om" has no connection whatsoever with the Buddha's teachings.

In Myanmar, it is not only hymns and mantras in Pali and Sanskrit that are chanted and recited. Mantras composed in the Burmese language also emerged and were created. As an example, a mantra called the Kāyasiddhi Gāthā (Verse for Physical Perfection) will be shown.

"Om, may my enemies be freed, be scarce, be far away. Om, Shin Moggallāna, guard, O guard against all enemies with your golden right hand."

With this verse, kick a Eugenia tree 37 times while reciting. After reciting, pluck a flower from that Eugenia tree and wear it. Carry it. It is said to be excellent for physical perfection (kāyasiddhi). The elder Shin Moggallāna could not even protect himself from his enemies; due to his karmic debt, he was beaten by five hundred bandits and entered Parinibbāna. He is no longer present now. And yet, this verse, which gives Shin Moggallāna the duty of a bodyguard and commands him to protect, is merely a nonsensical verse invented by followers of a corrupt sect.

Not long ago, a signboard mantra was also fashionable in Myanmar. That mantra was "Om Maṇi Padme Hūṃ." This mantra was seen on signs in homes, on vehicles, in shops, and everywhere.

This mantra is a verse used to worship the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara from the Mahayana sect. Its meaning is, "Just as the lord Avalokiteśvara, who is like a ruby gem, was born from a great lotus flower, may the wisdom of enlightenment also arise from the chamber of my heart."

While this mantra was popular in Myanmar, magazines that wished to purify Theravada wrote refutations, and as a result, its popularity later waned.

When the Burmese recite hymns and mantras, they count the number of repetitions with a string of beads called a rosary, or by counting the rounds. This practice of counting rounds and repetitions with a rosary is also known to be a practice that spread from the Hindu Brahmins.

 

Solving the Rosary Problem

In ancient times, the Chinese and the people of Peru made knotted beads from string and used them for record-keeping. Later, Brahmins, Hindus, Jains, Christians, and Muslims also used beads made of seeds, bamboo, glass, and stone.

Burmese Buddhists have also used beads, both as ornaments and as religious implements.

Burmese Buddhists have used beads as ornaments extensively since the Pyu era. The use of beads as a religious implement, however, began in a later period. This religious use of the rosary was a practice adopted from the Hindus.

Among the practices of the Hindu doctrine, there is a practice called "Upāsanā." This practice is the act of reciting mantras that praise the virtues of male and female deities. In reciting and worshipping these virtues, the practice of reciting with a rosary, called "Japa," is also included. That is why the Hindus call the rosary "Japamālā."

Japa = reciting, chanting.

Mālā = flower, or a string/strand.

This is its meaning.

The meaning of Japamālā is an object strung together to keep track of the number of repetitions when reciting something. In Hinduism, followers of the Vishnu sect commonly use a 108-bead rosary. The Burmese also frequently use a 108-bead rosary.

It is not known in which era Theravada Buddhists in Myanmar began to use it. According to the evidence from the mural paintings inside the Abe-yadana Temple cave in Pagan, figures that are presumed to be great Hindu sages are seen holding rosaries. The sages appear to be holding rosaries and reciting mantras.

By the Inwa period, however, it appears that Buddhist followers were using rosaries. In the old chronicles, it is found that at the meeting of King Razadarit and Sagyo Thu Myat, 300 nuns accompanied them, each with a rosary.

Theravada Buddhists adopted the use of the rosary from the Hindus. One cannot say that this practice is wrong. Regardless of which doctrine the practice is adopted from, the main thing is that Buddhists use it in a Buddhist way.

Hindus use it when reciting mantras. Buddhists use it when contemplating and reciting the virtues of the Buddha. In this way, they have become different. Therefore, it is appropriate for Buddhists to use the rosary for the purpose of imbuing themselves with the virtues of the Buddha. It can be viewed in the same way that the piano, though not an instrument invented by the Burmese, is used to play Burmese music.

However, some individuals have developed excessive beliefs regarding the rosary. They have imaginatively created and started using rosaries made of sandalwood, planetary woods, elemental materials, combined flowers, and combined herbs. The power of the rosary has also come to be believed in various ways. For instance, if one soaks the rosary in water and drinks it, a certain disease will be cured.

Some individuals also make a living by telling fraudulent fortunes, holding the end of the rosary string and shaking it north and south as if it were alive. This type of belief has become an extreme because it has become a supernatural belief.

At the present time in Myanmar, rosaries are being included in sculptures and drawings of the imaginary figure called Bo Bo Aung, as well as in images of other figures. The rosary has become this widespread. However, sculpting the image of Shin Sīvali with a rosary is quite inappropriate. The reason is that during the time of Shin Sīvali, the rosary was not yet in common use.

 

The Act of "Siddhi Tin" (Bestowing Power)

Today in Myanmar, the practice of "Siddhi Tin" is also accepted and believed by a great many people. The term "Siddhi Tin" is a combination of the Pali word siddhi and the Burmese word tin.

Here, if one looks up the meaning of the word siddhi, there is no entry for it in the Abhidhamma Pali dictionary. There are no synonyms either. However, in explaining words that can denote accomplishment, the word siddhi is given the meaning of "completion" or "accomplishment."

In the Burmese dictionary, siddhi is defined as: "Completion; the act of making an amulet, etc., powerful. To praise. To extol." Therefore, "Siddhi Tin" refers to the act of making a created object powerful.

The practice of "Siddhi Tin" also refers to the act of reciting with hymns and mantras, just like the Hindu Brahmins. The Burmese call it "reciting a spell" (man-ywet). Various kinds of spell-casting, such as on amulets, water, and oil, have been invented. It is believed that by reciting a spell in this way, the water becomes powerful. The oil gains power. Amulets and the like also become powerful and will accomplish the desired siddhis.

With this kind of belief, people recite and chant hymns and mantras themselves to bestow power. If they cannot do it themselves, they have others who can recite spells do it for them to make the objects powerful.

The hymns and mantras that are said to bestow power are also composed in Sanskrit, Pali, and Burmese. These mantras are merely texts that make requests for one's desires. An example is as follows:

"With great psychic power, warding off danger, may my lifespan be extended, may it last for the entire age of the world."

"When I hunger for delicious food of sweet and sour kinds, may it appear with a single wish."
"In times of need, may all the spirits and the assembly of adepts provide shade and protection."
"If a great many people come to attack me, may the forces of adepts, starting with the spirits, gather together in unison and protect me, making my form disappear in an instant."
It is only this kind of bestowing of power with such mantric texts.

In the modern era, as the bestowing of power has become popular, great figures who bestow power have also emerged. These individuals are, for the most part, people who are engaged in sect-like activities.

The great sect figures recite various "Om Aung" verses and bestow power upon rosaries, amulets, elemental spheres, and so on. People, with the certain belief that whatever the famous sect figure recites for them will be as accurate as a computer, turn up their palms and receive it.

In the modern era, there are even people who bestow power upon currency notes. The great figure bestows power upon a one-kyat note and gives it as a present. The person who receives that note is so pleased that they take a 200-kyat note from their wallet and offer it in worship. In reality, the person who bestowed the power has made a profit of 199 kyats. A business with a 199-kyat profit on a one-kyat investment does not exist in any partnership company.

People work with intense greed for their life and their experiences. They search for and devote themselves to objects of worship for their intense desires. They search for and accept things to believe in. They have been unable to attain the right view with their intellect to discern whether something is logical or not.

Theravada Buddhism has rejected such illogical forms of worship and belief. Let us now compare and analyze these illogical thoughts and ideas with the words from the Theravada Buddhist teachings.

 

Chapter (3)

Theravada and External Beliefs and Worship

The Bodhisatta, Prince Siddhattha, practiced the Middle Way and sought the truth. In the year 103 of the Great Era, on the full moon day of Kason, a Wednesday, he realized the Four Noble Truths and attained Buddhahood.

After attaining Buddhahood, he observed and analyzed the life of human beings. At that time, he saw the great, erroneous customs of human society. The ways people around him were worshipping and believing were very different from the Dhamma he had realized.

At the time the Buddha arose, the doctrines based on thoughts and ideas were flourishing in the Majjhimadesa region of India. The customs of worship and belief established by the Dravidians around 3000 BC and those established by the Aryans starting around 2000 BC were widespread throughout India. This great force was dominant.

The Lord Buddha analyzed the customs of worship and belief of the people and lamented, "Alas, this great world is being destroyed." His desire to preach the Dhamma he had realized faltered.

The Brahma Sahampati had to make a request out of compassion for the Buddha's hesitation and reluctance. Only then did the Lord Buddha preach the truth he had realized. He pointed out the errors in the existing forms of worship and the fallacies in the beliefs. He guided them onto the true path of the truth.

 

The Revolution Against External Worship

At the time the Buddha arose, the doctrine that was at the forefront in the Indian region was the doctrine of Attā (self/soul). According to the doctrine of Hindu Brahmanism, the principle of attā is something created by the great Brahma.

The great Brahma exists in a celestial realm above. He is a being that does not age, does not die, and is eternal. He created the entire world and all living beings.

The great Brahma created a small attā, called a soul or spirit, within the human body. This small attā remains constantly within the body, and when the physical body perishes, it transfers to another physical body.

In order for this small attā to reunite with its original creator, the great Brahma, one must perform offerings, acts of worship, and devotion. With this concept, the doctrine of Brahma worship flourished.

The Lord Buddha, in his early teachings, refuted the doctrine of attā by preaching that there is no such thing as an attā principle within a human being, and that what is called attā cannot exist anywhere. The teaching of Anattā (no-self), which revolutionized the doctrine of attā, was the inaugural sermon of the Lord Buddha.

During the Buddha's lifetime, if one were to unveil the tapestry of worship in India, one would see many other forms of worship. These forms of worship were also based on the Nature Worship imaginatively conceived by ancient peoples.

Around 3000 BC, the forms of worship of trees, forests, and mountains initiated by the Dravidian people still existed at the time of the Buddha's arising. The Buddha arrived in the region between the kingdoms of Anga and Magadha. At that time, a hermit named Aggidatta was instructing his disciples to worship trees forests, and mountains. The Lord Buddha refuted Aggidatta's teachings on worship as follows:

"Those who are terrified of danger take refuge in mountains, forests, and trees. Taking refuge in those mountains, forests, and trees is not a safe refuge. This form of worship is not a noble form of worship. Only the Three Jewels—the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha—are worthy of being taken as refuge. Taking refuge in the Three Jewels is the only safe refuge. It is the noble form of worship."

Afterwards, the Buddha continued to preach the doctrine of the Four Noble Truths, and the hermit Aggidatta and his ten thousand disciples became Arahants.

The Zoroastrian religion of the Persian people is a doctrine that holds fire as supreme. This type of doctrine also flourished in India.

While the Buddha was residing at the Veluvana monastery, a nephew of Shin Sāriputta, a Brahmin, was a fire-worshipper who made offerings to the fire god. The Lord Buddha instructed that Brahmin as follows:

"A certain person makes offerings to fire for a hundred years. Another person, however, makes offerings for a moment to a monk who has the insight of vipassanā wisdom. Of these two individuals, the offering made to the person with wisdom is nobler. There is no benefit in making offerings to fire for a hundred years." The worship of the fire god, Agni, is a custom of worship from the dawn of history. The Buddha taught in old Jātaka stories that there is no benefit in these forms of worship.

 

The Naṅguṭṭha Jātaka

In a past life, when King Brahmadatta was ruling in Benares, the Bodhisatta was born into a line of Udicca Brahmins. From the day the Bodhisatta was born, his parents kept a fire. They looked after this fire to ensure it was not extinguished.

When the Bodhisatta reached the age of 16, his parents said, "Dear son, from the day you were born, we have raised and looked after this fire. If you wish to stay at home, study the three Vedas. If you wish to reach the world of Brahma, take this fire and go to the forest. Make offerings to the fire god and act in a way that pleases the great Brahma."

The Bodhisatta, not wishing to live the life of a householder, took the fire that had been raised for him and departed for the forest. Living in the forest, he maintained the fire so it would not be extinguished and made offerings to the fire god.

One day, he received a cow as a donation from a border village. The Bodhisatta wished to offer the cow he received to the fire god. However, since he was in the forest, there was no salt. If he offered a dish without salt to the lord fire god, he would not be pleased. Therefore, he went to the village to get salt.

During the Bodhisatta's absence, a group of hunters arrived, saw the cow, and killed and ate it. They left the tail, hide, and bones at that spot.

When the Brahmin Bodhisatta returned, he did not see the cow. He only saw the tail, hide, and bones. The Bodhisatta looked at the fire god he had been maintaining and realized the truth.

"The glorious fire god cannot even look after his own property. How could he look after me? There can be no benefit in continuing to make offerings to this fire," he realized.

Having realized this, he said, "O, lord fire god, you are not a being who can even protect your own property. Now there is no more meat. You will have to eat this hide and short tail that are worthy of you," and after throwing the tail and scraps, he departed.

The Lord Buddha taught through old, authoritative stories that there is no benefit in worshipping natural phenomena such as trees, forests, and mountains.

However, even to this day, people still worship trees, forests, and mountains, regarding them as spirits.

The trees called "Shin Gyi" (Great Lord) in Myanmar are a belief based on tree worship. In the villages of Myanmar, various kinds of "Shin Gyi" trees can be seen. It is said that these trees can cause harm to people, and they are feared. People dare not even pick their shoots and branches. Some even offer Eugenia flowers and cool water to them. The stories of these spirit trees are also often quite fantastic.

In Myanmar, it is not only trees but also forests that are feared. Offerings to spirits are also placed on mountains. Mount Popa, for example, has been famous as a spirit mountain since ancient times. The great nat called Min Mahagiri ruled over it. Later, the Negrito nat Mae Wunna became popular, and the power of the great nat Mahagiri waned. Now, at the summit of Mount Popa, a collection of various nat images has been sculpted and placed, making it appear like a great nat museum.

Today, in almost every mountain range in Myanmar, there is a local mountain and a local nat, each with its own story. People are still afraid of them. Those who dare to offend their parents and teachers dare not even wear their sandals under a "Shin Gyi" tree.

At this point, there is something to consider. The "Shin Gyi" trees where spirits reside are, for the most part, trees located near resting places and villages. In the deep forest, far from human habitation, there are no spirit trees. There is nothing for a spirit to possess. If there were spirits and they possessed trees, it would be quite difficult for the staff of the timber extraction industry.

 

Theravada View and the Savior

In the teachings of Theravada, there is no such thing as a savior. There is no one who can save you. The Lord Buddha himself was not a savior for humanity; he was only a "guide."

The Lord Buddha declared:

"Dear sons, for your own liberation, you yourselves must strive and exert yourselves. The Buddhas can only guide and show the way!" This was explicitly stated in the Dhammapada.

Furthermore, in the Attadīpa Sutta of the Khandha-vagga Saṃyutta:

"Monks, relying on yourselves, making yourselves your own support, without relying on anyone else; relying on the Dhamma, making the Dhamma your own support, without relying on anything else, you must abide!" This is what he preached.

The Buddha taught that one should live one's life according to the Dhamma. Human beings create their own lives themselves. One does one's own karma and performs one's own deeds. He taught that one creates the good and bad fortune for one's own life by oneself. He also taught the principles of good and bad deeds. He instructed to avoid bad deeds and perform good deeds.

One who does a good deed creates a good result. One who does a bad deed creates a bad result. In this way, he guided and instructed according to the principle of the law of kamma, without deviation.

And yet, some people search for and worship a savior for their lives. They long for the help and protection of unseen gods and devas with their own imaginary thoughts. They make requests.

They also hope for the help and protection of great figures who they think can save them, even among their fellow human beings. They request for their fortune to open, for their star to rise. They bow their heads in reverence and make wishes for all sorts of blessings and good fortune.

In reality, however, no person can change the course of another's good or bad fortune and steer it off course. It cannot be done by making wishes either. The Lord Buddha also taught this principle.

While the Lord Buddha was residing in the Pāvārika Mango Grove in Nālandā, a village headman once made a request.

"Venerable Sir, the Brahmins in the western lands say that they can help people attain the world of the gods. Can the Venerable Sir also do so?"

"Village headman, if a large stone is thrown into the water, and people gather around and pray, 'O great stone, float on the surface of the water, come up onto the bank,' will that great stone float? Will it come up onto the bank?"

"It cannot float, it cannot come up, Venerable Sir."

"Village headman, if a pot of ghee is broken in the water, the shards will sink in the water, and the ghee will float on the surface. At that time, if people gather around and pray, 'May the ghee sink to the bottom of the water,' will it sink?"

"It cannot sink, Venerable Sir."

"Village headman, in the same way, if one has not done meritorious good deeds but has done evil deeds, no matter how much one prays for them to reach a good destination, it cannot be. For one who has done good deeds, it is not possible for them to suffer a bad destination by saying, 'May it be so.' They will only attain a good destination according to the results of their good deeds."

As can be seen from this teaching, another person cannot save a human being. It cannot be achieved by praying. It cannot be achieved by another person making a wish for you. One can only create one's own life. One is one's own savior. This is as clear as a boat on the water.

 

Theravada and Belief in Omens and Portents

In the era when the Lord Buddha arose, concepts obsessed with omens and portents were also numerous in India. Encountering a good omen or portent was considered auspicious (maṅgala). If it was bad, it was considered inauspicious. This concept was called worldly auspiciousness. This obsession with omens and portents was also of three types.

(1) Diṭṭhamaṅgala: This is called auspiciousness based on the portent of sight. In the morning, upon waking from sleep, if one saw a swallow, a tailorbird, a pregnant woman, an unmarried young man or woman, a thoroughbred horse, or a bull, it was considered a good portent. If one saw a beggar, it was considered a bad portent, an inauspicious event.

(2) Sutamaṅgala: This is called auspiciousness based on the omen or portent of hearing. If one heard a joyful and happy sound or song, it was considered a good omen, an auspicious event. The same was true if one heard the cry of a green-billed malkoha. If one heard the sound of crying or the call of an unlucky bird, it was considered a bad omen, an inauspicious event.

(3) Mutamaṅgala: This is called auspiciousness based on the omen or portent of sensation (smell, taste, touch). If one experienced a good smell, a good taste, or a good touch, it was considered an auspicious omen. If one encountered a bad smell, a bad taste, or a bad touch, it was considered a bad portent, an inauspicious event.

Concepts such as auspicious days (rājayoga), inauspicious days (byatitsu), days of fortune, days of spirits, good and bad constellations, etc., are also included in this auspiciousness belief based on omens and portents.

The Buddha taught through various stories and past events that one should not place importance on and believe in such auspiciousness based on omens and portents.

In Benares, the parents of a son arranged for a young woman from another town for him. They gave a date and set it. The young woman's parents also agreed and accepted. After giving the date, they went to ask an Ājīvaka ascetic, who told them that the day was not an auspicious one according to the stars.

Therefore, the groom's family did not go on the appointed day but postponed it to a later date. The bride's family, however, waited on the appointed day. Since time passed and they did not come, they married her off to another young man. Based on this past event, the Buddha taught:
"The benefit that is needed passes by the fool who waits for an auspicious star and an auspicious time. The time when one does a needed deed is itself the auspicious time and the auspicious star. What benefit can the stars in the sky bring?"

He thus declared the truth for those who choose auspicious days and times.

Regarding omens and portents, the Buddha also taught in the Sampasādanīya Sutta. When asked, "How should monks who have renounced the household life, abandoning sensual pleasures, conduct themselves well?"

The Lord Buddha answered as follows:

"A monk who has thoroughly abandoned, through the noble path, worldly auspicious beliefs such as believing that a certain sign is auspicious for obtaining benefit; obsessions with calamities such as lightning strikes and fires; obsessions with the characteristics of animate and inanimate objects and possessions—that monk has abandoned all that is related to auspiciousness. That monk can be said to conduct himself well in the world."

The Buddha thus taught, refuting such beliefs in omens and portents. These beliefs are merely creations based on the psychological thoughts of human beings. They are beliefs that are not immediate and tangible. These beliefs of the mind have no meaning. They are only beliefs that defile the human mind, and he taught that one should live by abandoning them. If one can live by abandoning them in this way, one is freed from the principles that bind the mind. One attains mental freedom.

The Lord Buddha himself refuted the obsession with omens and portents created by psychological thought. He demonstrated this through his own practice.

 

Stories Against the Obsession with Omens

In the city of Rājagaha, there was a Brahmin who believed that omens and portents were auspicious. He did not believe in the Three Jewels. He was one who practiced a wrong view.

One day, a mouse entered the Brahmin's clothes chest and chewed on the clothes. After the Brahmin had bathed and washed his head, he had someone fetch his clothes to change. Only then did he discover that the clothes had been chewed by a mouse.

The Brahmin looked at the clothes chewed by the mouse and thought, "If I keep clothes chewed by a mouse in this house, it will be destroyed. It is no longer auspicious. It is a bad omen. If I give these clothes, which are a bad omen, to my children or servants, they will be destroyed. I must have them taken to the cemetery and thrown away."

He could not have a servant throw these clothes away. The clothes were of fine quality. Some of the clothes were still good to use. If the servants did not throw them away but kept them, they would be destroyed. Therefore, he had his own son throw them away.

"Dear son, do not let your hands touch these clothes. Take them with a pole and go. Leave them in the cemetery. My son, you must also wash your head before returning home."

The Lord Buddha, knowing of this event, went to the cemetery and awaited the arrival of the Brahmin's son.

The great Brahmin's son also arrived at the cemetery, carrying the clothes with a pole. He met the Buddha, who was waiting for him. The Buddha asked, "Young man, why have you come to the cemetery?"

"Venerable Sir, at our home, the clothes were chewed by a mouse. It is no longer a good omen. If these things are kept in the house, it is said that it will be destroyed. That is why I have come to discard the mouse-chewed clothes," he replied.

After that, the Brahmin's son threw away the clothes. The Lord Buddha picked up and kept the discarded clothes and returned to the Veluvana monastery.

The Brahmin's son related this strange event to his father, the great Brahmin. The great Brahmin became frantic and said, "The monk Gotama will be destroyed. I must go quickly and exchange them for new clothes," and taking new clothes, he followed him to the Veluvana monastery.

"Venerable Gotama, if you keep the mouse-chewed clothes, both the Venerable Sir and the monastery will be destroyed. Do not keep them. If you do not have enough for a robe, take these new clothes and have a robe made. Please discard the mouse-chewed ones immediately," he pleaded.

Only then did the Lord Buddha preach the Maṅgala Jātaka to the Brahmin father and son. At the end of the Maṅgala Jātaka, he preached to the Brahmin as follows:

"Great Brahmin, Arahants have abandoned worldly auspiciousness, solar and lunar eclipses, meteor falls, fires in the cardinal directions, and other calamities; omens related to various dreams; the practice of reading signs; and the practice of reading bodily marks. Arahants have transcended worldly auspiciousness and the obsession with omens and portents. They have utterly cut off attachment. At the very least, they no longer have any attachment to this world."

The Brahmin father and son, having heard the teachings of the Buddha, attained the fruit of Sotāpatti.

During the Buddha's lifetime, there was also a strange story of reading omens by sniffing a sword. King Kosala had a Brahmin who would read the omens of a sword. When blacksmiths presented a sword to the king, that Brahmin would sniff the sword and announce the omen.

If it was a sword from a blacksmith who had bribed him, the Brahmin would usually proclaim, "If this sword is used, one's glory will increase. It is auspicious." If he had not been bribed, he would usually criticize it, saying, "This sword is not auspicious."

One day, a blacksmith who was dissatisfied with the Brahmin's conduct filled the scabbard of a sword with fine chili powder and presented it. When the Brahmin took out the sword and suddenly sniffed it, the chili powder entered his nose, and he sneezed. Because the Brahmin was struck by the sword, his nose was cut off. The great Brahmin who read the omens for others seemed not to have been shown any omen that his own nose would be cut off.

 

The Five Principles of Theravada Buddhism

The Lord Buddha tirelessly refuted and preached against practices created through psychological thought and believed in through worship. He preached through countless authoritative proofs that no benefit can be gained from those forms of worship.

Buddhists who have taken faith in the teachings of the Buddha and have taken the name of the Buddha's lay disciples (upāsaka) must be able to abandon the various forms of worship based on attachment to perception. They must also be able to eliminate the various beliefs based on attachment to thought.

If one cannot eliminate these external forms of worship and belief, one cannot fully attain the qualities of an upāsaka or upāsikā desired by the Buddha. One cannot yet be called a pure Buddhist.

The Lord Buddha established a standard of five points for one to become a true lay follower (upāsaka) who has taken faith in his teachings. They are:

(1)   One must have faith (saddhā).

(2)   One must have morality (sīla).

(3)   One must not believe in superstitious omens (kotūhala-maṅgala).

(4)   One must be a person who believes only in kamma.

(5)   One must not seek external forms of worship outside the Sāsana.
This is what they are.

(1) To have faith (saddhā) means to have full faith in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.

(2) To have morality (sīla) means to observe the code of personal conduct prescribed by Buddhism.

(3) To not believe in superstitious omens (kotūhala-maṅgala) means to not believe in imaginative thoughts such as auspicious days (rājayoga), inauspicious days (byatitsu), eclipses of the sun and moon.

(4) To believe only in kamma means to be endowed with the right view of kamma as one's own property (kammassakatā-sammādiṭṭhi) as explained in the ten bases of meritorious action. One must believe only in one's own kamma and the results of one's kamma. It means that one must not believe in other beliefs.

(5) One must not seek and devote oneself to forms of worship that are separate from the Sāsana, or to recipients of offerings outside the Sāsana. One must avoid forms of worship outside the Sāsana, such as spirits, Indra, Brahma, perfected beings, Bodetaws, Medaws, and weikzas.

Dear Theravada Buddhist laymen and laywomen, have you become true laymen according to the Buddha's wish? Have you become true laywomen? You will have to answer this question for yourselves honestly.

 

Correcting Belief and Worship

It has been nearly 1,000 years since Myanmar accepted and worshipped pure Theravada Buddhism. During that period, other forms of worship and belief have also been mixed in and practiced at a lower level. They have never completely disappeared through the successive eras.

In some eras, forms of worship outside of Buddhism became fashionable. There were also times when they became excessive. At such times, the ruling kings had to provide guidance.

King Anawrahta was a king who carried out the purification of erroneous forms of worship.

During the reign of King Bayinnaung, nat worship was rampant. Great nat festivals where cattle and buffalo were killed and offered to the nats with alcohol were in vogue. Therefore, King Bayinnaung issued a royal order forbidding such practices.

King Anaukpetlun suppressed nat mediums who were deceiving the people and had their nat images collected and stored at the four-story monastery.

The King of Hanthawaddy had nat shrines and pavilions destroyed, saying that they were a hindrance to the people.

Some Burmese kings did not ignore such psychological forms of worship but provided guidance and control.

Burmese literary scholars have also pointed out the errors in such forms of worship and belief through their literature. The great poet Shin Maharatthasara described it as follows in his Ko-khan-pyo (Canto 42):

"Planetary transits, planetary influences, planetary eclipses; auspicious elements, friends and enemies; the three rising signs, the planetary positions at night; the original beginning, the end of fortune; the cycle of days, the four corners of the cemetery; guarded by spirits, residing with spirits; the eight occasions, the inauspicious kāraṇa; the five tithis, the timely yadayā; horoscopes and dreams—do not perform them unceasingly. If one seeks the root cause of these things, they are mere conventions. It is only by destiny that things happen. Let the father believe, let the mind not waver. For all beings, in the endless and various worlds, to regard kamma as one's own property is the true doctrine."

The poet who composed the Than-way-ga-khan-pyo also pointed out the errors of worshipping the constellations as follows:

"In celebrations, with nat-keepers, they revel and shout, making a great clamor, calling out to the nats, intoxicated and confused. In various ways, in the human realm, they regard the false nats as their savior, clinging to the idea. That the nats, devas, and Brahmas are the root cause, that they create all beings—this is what they wrongly accept. But now, happiness and suffering are given by the nats, they think. This is a mistaken view, a wrong view."

U Aw of Zinn-gyaung-kyar-thu also wrote disparagingly in his Kavi-lakkhaṇa-that-pon-kyan:
"All wrong views are covered over at the shrine of the Taungbyone brothers."

The great Man-lay Sayadaw, in his new Maghadeva-liṅkā, wrote:

"Saturday and Tuesday, the days and dates, and the various planets and stars, from the sky above, what good or ill can they do? The foolish people wait and watch for the auspicious time and stars, and the immediate happiness that they could have gained passes them by. Do not be tainted by wrong views,"—so he wrote. And also:

"As the soothsayers wish, with the planets and stars, what harm, even a little, can those stars in the sky, with their dim light, do to the lower races of men?"—so he wrote.

The great Sayadaw himself wrote that suffering and happiness are said in the scriptures to have their root cause in the two factors of kamma. He wrote that kamma alone is paramount.

Therefore, followers of Theravada Buddhism must strive and exert themselves according to the doctrine of action, where kamma is paramount, as taught by the Buddha. They must avoid forms of worship and belief that bypass the mother religion of Buddhism and long for a stepmother.

"O noble followers of Theravada Buddhism! From this day forward,

• The practices of devotion through psychological thought,
• The beliefs based on irrational systems, may you cast them out from your minds. May you strive and exert yourselves to become individuals who bring honor to and illuminate Theravada Buddhism."

 

Conclusion

Here, I must conclude the book "Theravada Buddhism." In this book, I have highlighted the various forms of worship and the many beliefs that are mixed in with Theravada Buddhism and with Theravada Buddhism itself.

Today in Myanmar, psychological practices that are not related to Theravada are seeping into and penetrating Theravada Buddhism. There are also those who are casting a spell of delusion. Myanmar is a leading country of Theravada. Myanmar is also a model country for studying the Buddhist way of life. When foreigners who arrive in Myanmar study the Buddhist way of life, they may decide and conclude that the Buddhist way of life is an imaginative way of life. This can harm the honor of the nation, the honor of the race, and the honor of the Buddhist religion. Therefore:

• For the sake of not harming the honor of the Buddhist religion,
• For the sake of not harming the honor of the Buddhist people,
• For the sake of not harming the honor of the nation of Myanmar, the time has come to cooperate from all sides and provide protection. Therefore, I must conclude this work with a call to arms in the form of the following verse.

Of the noble Buddha,

The essence of the Dhamma, the true teachings,

Before they fade, weaken, and dim,

The lies and deceptions, the wrong and false views,

Before the thousands of them become strong,

From all sides, with strategic ways,

The wrong doctrines, the foolish factions,

To reject, crush, and annihilate them,

Is the duty of us all.

(From a poem by Chan Myei Thayar in Dhamma Ranthi Magazine, No. 73)